¿Qué entienden los jóvenes universitarios por monogamia y sexo sin penetración, como estrategias preventivas de la transmisión sexual del virus del SIDA? = What university students understand by monogamy and sex without penetration as preventive strategies of sexual transmission of AIDS virus?

Monogamy and sex without penetration are behaviors recommended by the WHO to avoid AIDS virus sexual transmission. Seven hundred and fifty university students from 18 to 25 years (67.7% women) were surveyed and they were asked to give a maximum of three free definitions of the words monogamy and sex without penetration to prevent AIDS virus sexual transmission. Their participation was voluntary and anonymous. Although the majority of the answers was correct, there was a considerable percentage of wrong answers, either for monogamy (3.7% masturbation; 2.1% to have many partners; 0.9% homosexual relations), or for sex without penetration (20.5% oral sex; 1.1% anal coitus; 0.8% coitus without orgasm; 0.4% coitus interruptus). Some definitions or examples differ by gender. The amount of wrongs or incomplete answers put researchers on the alert about insufficient preventive knowledge in a population with a high educational level

El virus de l'hepatitis C i la ribonucleasa Phumana: aspectes biològics i terapèutics

El virus de l'hepatitis C (VHC) provoca una hepatitis crònica que afecta a més de 170 milions de persones d'arreu del món. És un virus petit que es classifica dins de la família Flaviviridae i és un virus d'RNA de cadena positiva amb un genoma d'aproximadament 9.600 nucleòtids. A l'extrem 5' del genoma viral s'hi troba una regió no codificant (5'NCR) que comprèn els primers 341 nucleòtids i la seva funció està relaciona amb la traducció. Immediatament després hi ha una pauta de lectura oberta ORF que acaba en un únic codó d'aturada i codifica una poliproteïna de 3.010 aminoàcids. A continuació l'extrem 3' no codificant (3'NCR), que malgrat es desconeixen les seves funcions exactes, s'ha demostrat que és essencial per a la replicació vírica. La única poliproteïna generada és processada co- i postraduccionalment mitjançant proteases de l'hoste i víriques, donant lloc a les proteïnes estructurals (Core, E1 i E2-p7) i no estructurals (NS2-NS5B). Igual que la majoria de virus RNA, el VHC es caracteritza per tenir una taxa de mutació elevada. De fet, el genoma del virus no es pot definir com una única seqüència sinó per una població de variants molt relacionades entre sí. A aquesta manera d'organitzar la informació genètica se l'anomena quasiespècie viral i una de les seves implicacions principals és la facilitat amb què sorgeixen resistents al tractament. Els tractaments disponibles són llargs, cars, provoquen efectes secundaris considerables i només es resolen completament el 40% dels casos. Per aquesta raó es busquen altres solucions terapèutiques per combatre el virus entre les quals s'hi inclouen diferents estratègies. Una de les més innovadores i prometedores és la utilització de ribozims dirigits directament contra el genoma del virus. Aquest treball es centra en l'estudi de les noves estratègies terapèutiques basades en ribozims, concretament la ribonucleasa P. La ribonucleasa P és un ribozim que està present en tots els organismes ja que és l'enzim responsable de la maduració dels precursors d'RNA de transferència. El més interessant a nivell terapèutic és que s'ha demostrat que es pot dirigir la seva activitat cap a qualsevol RNA utilitzant una seqüència guia d'RNA que quan hibrida amb l'RNA diana, l'híbrid imita l'estructura secundària del substrat natural. En el cas del VHC, s'han estudiat ribozims dependents de seqüència (ribozims derivats d'RNAs satèl·lits i de viroides de plantes), sempre dirigits contra la regió més conservada del virus per evitar una disminució de l'eficiència del ribozim deguda a la variació de la diana. La ribonucleasa P és una endonucleasa d'activitat molt específica i es diferencia dels altres ribozims naturals en el sistema de reconeixement del substrat, reconeix elements estructurals i no de seqüència. L'objectiu final del treball és tallar in vitro l'RNA del VHC aprofitant la propietat que presenta aquest ribozim de reconèixer elements estructurals i no de seqüència ja que per a un mateix nombre de seqüències, el nombre d'estructures viables que pot adoptar l'RNA genòmic és molt més petit i per tant la variabilitat de la diana disminueix. S'han estudiat dos models d'RNasa P, la RNasa P humana guiada per seqüència guia externa (EGS) i l'RNA M1 de l'RNasa P d'E.coli unit a la seqüència guia per l'extrem 3' (ribozim M1GS). Abans però de dirigir el ribozim, s'han estudiat l'estructura i la variabilitat d'una regió del genoma del virus ja que s'ha descrit que són factors que poden limitar l'eficiència de qualsevol ribozim. Derivat d'aquests estudis s'aporten dades sobre accessibilitat i variabilitat d'una regió interna del genoma del virus de l'hepatitis C, la zona d'unió de la regió E2/NS2 (regió 2658-2869). L'estudi d'accessibilitat revela que la regió 2658-2869 del genoma del virus conté dominis oberts i tancats i que la transició entre uns i altres no és brusca si es compara amb altres regions d'estructura coneguda (regió 5' no codificant). Els resultats dels assajos in vitro amb els dos models de RNasa P mostren que s'ha aconseguit dirigir tant la ribonucleasa P humana com el ribozim M1GS cap a una zona, predeterminada segons l'estudi d'accessibilitat, com a poc estructurada i tallar l'RNA del virus. De l'anàlisi de mutacions, però, es dedueix que la regió estudiada és variable. Tot i dirigir el ribozim cap a la zona més accessible, la variació de la diana podria afectar la interacció amb la seqüència guia i per tant disminuir l'eficiència de tall. Si es proposés una estratègia terapèutica consistiria en un atac simultani de vàries dianes.D'altra banda i derivat d'un resultat inesperat on s'ha observat en els experiments control que l'extracte de RNasa P humana tallava l'RNA viral en absència de seqüències guia externes, s'ha caracteritzat una nova interacció entre l'RNA del VHC i la RNasa P humana. Per a la identificació de l'enzim responsable dels talls s'han aplicat diferents tècniques que es poden dividir en mètodes directes (RNA fingerprinting) i indirectes (immunoprecipitació i inhibicions competitives). Els resultats demostren que la ribonucleasa P humana, i no un altre enzim contaminant de l'extracte purificat, és la responsable dels dos talls específics observats i que es localitzen, un a l'entrada interna al ribosoma (IRES) i molt a prop del codó AUG d'inici de la traducció i l'altre entre la regió codificant estructural i no estructural. La ribonucleasa P és un dels enzims del metabolisme del tRNA que s'utilitza per identificar estructures similars al tRNA en substrats diferents del substrat natural. Així doncs, el fet que la ribonucleasa P reconegui i talli el genoma del VHC en dues posicions determinades suggereix que, a les zones de tall, el virus conté estructures semblants al substrat natural, és a dir estructures tipus tRNA. A més, tot i que el VHC és molt variable, els resultats indiquen que aquestes estructures poden ser importants per el virus, ja que es mantenen en totes les variants naturals analitzades. Creiem que la seva presència podria permetre al genoma interaccionar amb factors cel·lulars que intervenen en la biologia del tRNA,particularment en el cas de l'estructura tipus tRNA que es localitza a l'element IRES. Independentment però de la seva funció, es converteixen en unes noves dianes terapèutiques per a la RNasa P. S'ha de replantejar però l'estratègia inicial ja que la similitud amb el tRNA les fa susceptibles a l'atac de la ribonucleasa P, directament, en absència de seqüències guia externes.

Molecular characterization of Iranian wheat stripe virus shows its taxonomic position as a distinct species in the genus Tenuivirus

The full lengths of three genome segments of Iranian wheat stripe virus (IWSV) were amplified by reverse transcription (RT) followed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using a primer complementary to tenuivirus conserved terminal sequences. The segments were sequenced and found to comprise 3469, 2337, and 1831 nt, respectively. The gene organization of these segments is similar to that of other known tenuiviruses, each displaying an ambisense coding strategy. IWSV segments, however, are different from those of other viruses with respect to the number of nucleotides and deduced amino acid sequence for each ORF. Depending on the segment, the first 16-22 nt at the 5' end and the first 16 nt at the 3' end are highly conserved among IWSV and rice hoja blanca virus (RHBV), rice stripe virus (RSV) and maize stripe virus ( MStV). In addition, the first 15-18 nt at the 5' end are complementary to the first 16-18 nt at the 3' end. Phylogenetic analyses showed close similarity and a common ancestor for IWSV, RHBV, and Echinochloa hoja blanca virus (EHBV). These findings confirm the position of IWSV as a distinct species in the genus Tenuivirus.

Transmission properties of Iranian wheat stripe virus

Transmission properties of Iranian wheat stripe virus (IWSV), a tentative member of the genus Tenuivirus, were studied. Results showed that similar to other tenuiviruses, IWSV multiplies in its vector, Unkanodes tanasijevici. In bioassay experiments, IWSV transmission rate by individual U. tanasijevici showed an increase with time after acquisition. IWSV was transovarially transmitted to 88-100% of progeny. The nymphs continued to be infective in the adult stage but with decreased efficiency. Males and females transmitted the virus with equal efficiency. Transmission properties of IWSV confirm the position of the virus in the genus Tenuivirus.

Evidence for the presence of bluetongue virus in Kosovo between 2001 and 2004

In 2001, clinical cases of bluetongue were observed in Kosovo, and in that year and in 2003 and 2004, serum samples were collected from cattle and small ruminants and tested for antibodies to bluetongue virus. The results provide evidence that bluetongue virus was not present in Kosovo before the summer of 2001, but that the virus circulated subclinically among the cattle and sheep populations of Kosovo in 2002, 2003 and 2004.

Economic impact of Turnip mosaic virus, Cauliflower mosaic virus and Beet mosaic virus in three Kenyan vegetables

Screenhouse experiments conducted in Kenya showed that inoculation of cabbage seedlings with Turnip mosaic virus (TuMV), either alone, or in combination with Cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV), reduced the number and weight of marketable harvested heads. When viruses were inoculated simultaneously, 25% of cabbage heads were non-marketable, representing 20-fold loss compared with control. By contrast, inoculation with CaMV alone had insignificant effects on cabbage yield. This suggests that TuMV is the more detrimental of these pathogens, and its management should be a priority. Early exposure to TuMV produced cabbages that were 50% lighter than non-infected plants, but later infection was less damaging suggesting that controlling virus infection at the seedling stage is more important. TuMV was far less damaging to kale than it was to cabbage; although high proportions of TuMV-inoculated kale plants showed symptoms (> 90%), the marketability and quality of leaves were not significantly reduced, and no clear relationship existed between timing of infection and subsequent crop losses. Early inoculation of Swiss chard with Beet mosaic virus (BtMV) significantly impaired leaf quality (similar to 50% reduction in marketable leaf production), but the impact of disease was greatest in plants that had been inoculated at maturity, where average leaf losses were two and a half times those recorded in virus-free plants. Disease-management of BtMV in Swiss chard is important, therefore, not only at the seedling stage, but particularly when plants are transplanted from nursery to field.

Mutations in H5N1 influenza virus hemagglutinin that confer binding to human tracheal airway epithelium

The emergence in 2009 of a swine-origin H1N1 influenza virus as the first pandemic of the 21st Century is a timely reminder of the international public health impact of influenza viruses, even those associated with mild disease. The widespread distribution of highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza virus in the avian population has spawned concern that it may give rise to a human influenza pandemic. The mortality rate associated with occasional human infection by H5N1 virus approximates 60%, suggesting that an H5N1 pandemic would be devastating to global health and economy. To date, the H5N1 virus has not acquired the propensity to transmit efficiently between humans. The reasons behind this are unclear, especially given the high mutation rate associated with influenza virus replication. Here we used a panel of recombinant H5 hemagglutinin (HA) variants to demonstrate the potential for H5 HA to bind human airway epithelium, the predominant target tissue for influenza virus infection and spread. While parental H5 HA exhibited limited binding to human tracheal epithelium, introduction of selected mutations converted the binding profile to that of a current human influenza strain HA. Strikingly, these amino-acid changes required multiple simultaneous mutations in the genomes of naturally occurring H5 isolates. Moreover, H5 HAs bearing intermediate sequences failed to bind airway tissues and likely represent mutations that are an evolutionary "dead end." We conclude that, although genetic changes that adapt H5 to human airways can be demonstrated, they may not readily arise during natural virus replication. This genetic barrier limits the likelihood that current H5 viruses will originate a human pandemic.

Mapping the immune response to the outer domain of a human immunodeficiency virus-1 clade C gp120

The outer domain (OD) of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 gp120 represents an attractive, if difficult, target for a beneficial immune response to HIV infection. Unlike the entire gp120, the OD is structurally stable and contains the surfaces that interact with both the primary and secondary cellular receptors. The primary strain-specific neutralizing target, the V3 loop, lies within the OD, as do epitopes for two cross-reactive neutralizing monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), b12 and 2G12, and the contact sites for a number of inhibitory lectins. The OD is poorly immunogenic, at least in the context of complete gp120, but purposeful OD immunization can lead to a substantial antibody response. Here, we map the antibody generated following immunization with a clade C OD. In contrast to published data for the clade B OD, the majority of the polyclonal response to the complete clade C OD is to the V3 loop; deletion of the loop substantially reduces immunogenicity. When the loop sequence was substituted for the epitope for 2F5, a well-characterized human cross-neutralizing mAb, a polyclonal response to the epitope was generated. A panel of mAbs against the clade C OD identified two mAbs that reacted with the loop and were neutralizing for clade C but not B isolates. Other mAbs recognized both linear and conformational epitopes in the OD. We conclude that, as for complete gp120, V3 immunodominance is a property of OD immunogens, that the responses can be neutralizing and that it could be exploited for the presentation of other epitopes.

Contribution of redox status to hepatitis C virus E2 envelope protein function and antigenicity

Disulfide bonding contributes to the function and antigenicity of many viral envelope glycoproteins. We assessed here its significance for the hepatitis C virus E2 envelope protein and a counterpart deleted for hypervariable region-1 (HVR1). All 18 cysteine residues of the antigens were involved in disulfides. Chemical reduction of up to half of these disulfides was compatible with anti-E2 monoclonal antibody reaction, CD81 receptor binding, and viral entry, whereas complete reduction abrogated these properties. The addition of 5,5'-dithiobis-2-nitrobenzoic acid had no effect on viral entry. Thus, E2 function is only weakly dependent on its redox status, and cell entry does not require redox catalysts, in contrast to a number of enveloped viruses. Because E2 is a major neutralizing antibody target, we examined the effect of disulfide bonding on E2 antigenicity. We show that reduction of three disulfides, as well as deletion of HVR1, improved antibody binding for half of the patient sera tested, whereas it had no effect on the remainder. Small scale immunization of mice with reduced E2 antigens greatly improved serum reactivity with reduced forms of E2 when compared with immunization using native E2, whereas deletion of HVR1 only marginally affected the ability of the serum to bind the redox intermediates. Immunization with reduced E2 also showed an improved neutralizing antibody response, suggesting that potential epitopes are masked on the disulfide-bonded antigen and that mild reduction may increase the breadth of the antibody response. Although E2 function is surprisingly independent of its redox status, its disulfide bonds mask antigenic domains. E2 redox manipulation may contribute to improved vaccine design.

Broadly neutralizing antibodies protect against hepatitis C virus quasispecies challenge

A major problem in hepatitis C virus (HCV) immunotherapy or vaccine design is the extreme variability of the virus. We identified human monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) that neutralize genetically diverse HCV isolates and protect against heterologous HCV quasispecies challenge in a human liver-chimeric mouse model. The results provide evidence that broadly neutralizing antibodies to HCV protect against heterologous viral infection and suggest that a prophylactic vaccine against HCV may be achievable.

Transmission of cocoa swollen shoot virus by seeds

A study was undertaken to determine whether cocoa swollen shoot virus is transmitted by seeds, to improve the robustness of quarantine procedures for international exchange and long term conservation of cocoa germplasm. PCR/capillary electrophoresis, using cocoa swollen shoot virus primers designed from the most conserved regions of the six published cocoa genome sequences, allowed the detection of cocoa swollen shoot virus in all the component parts of cocoa seeds from cocoa swollen shoot virus-infected trees. PCR/capillary electrophoresis revealed the presence of cocoa swollen shoot virus in seedlings raised from seeds obtained from cocoa swollen shoot virus-infected trees. The high frequency with which the virus was transmitted through the seedlings suggested that cocoa swollen shoot virus is transmitted by seeds. This has serious implications for cocoa germplasm conservation and distribution. (C) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.