The effect of heating temperature on the properties of vermiculites from Tanzania with respect to potential agronomic applications

This study was carried out to assess the properties of vermiculites from Tanzania with respect to the temperature used to expand them. Vermiculites from five locations in the Mozambique Belt of Tanzania were sampled and heated at 15, 200, 400, 600 and 800 °C in a muffle furnace. Palabora Europe Ltd provided one sample for comparison from their South Africa deposit which provides vermiculite used worldwide as a soil amendment. Water release characteristic, cation exchange capacity, pH, mass loss, and bulk density were among the properties assessed. All six vermiculites responded differently on heating, and had a significant variation in their agronomic properties. Water release characteristic varied with the degree of exfoliation and phase composition. Although vermiculites from Tanzania expanded on heating, their capacity to retain plant available water was relatively low as compared to vermiculite from Palabora. Disintegration on heating and the presence of a high amount of iron could be among the factors affecting their water release characteristic. Loss of hydroxyl water was higher in vermiculites than in hydrobiotites. Dehydroxylation enhanced the availability of exchangeable K⁺ and reduced significantly the cation exchange capacity of vermiculites. The optimum exchangeable K⁺ was obtained on heating at a temperature of 600 °C. The pH was unaffected by heating to a temperature of less than 600 °C. At higher temperature, the pH increased in some samples and was accompanied by substantial amounts of exchangeable Mg²⁺. Thus, it was concluded that initial characterization of vermiculites is essential prior to potential agricultural applications in order to optimize their agronomic potential. © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Mineralogical and chemical characterization of some vermiculites from the mozambique belt of tanzania for agricultural use

Vermiculite minerals are locally available in the Mozambique Belt of Tanzania but are not currently commercially exploited. In part this may be due to lack of any precise characterization. This study was carried out as a first step to assess the suitability of these vermiculites for crop production by characterization of their mineralogical and chemical compositions. X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy combined with an energydispersive X-ray system were used to establish the mineralogy. Electron microprobe analysis and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry were used to study the chemical compositions and to identify any possible issues related to chemical composition that might affect their use if applied as soil conditioners. The samples were characterized as vermiculites and hydrobiotites with a wide variety of accessory minerals. Accessory minerals that might be of some concern are galena, fibrous amphiboles and sepiolite. The total levels of Ni in all vermiculites, and Cr in some, were also found to be high relative to common European standards and this might limit their potential as soil conditioners. It is clear that a field assessment of the bioavailability of various elements would be necessary before decisions relating to potential agricultural use could be made. © 2009 The Mineralogical Society.

Mineralization of 2,4-dichlorophenol by ectomycorrhizal fungi in axenic culture and in symbiosis with pine

Experiments were conducted to determine if two ectomycorrhizal fungi (Paxillus involutus and Suillus variegatus) could degrade 2,4-dichlorophenol both in axenic liquid culture and during symbiosis with a host tree species Pinus sylvestris. Both fungi readily degraded 2,4- dichlorophenol in batch culture with similar rates of mineralization on a biomass basis. Up to 17% of the 2,4-dichlorophenol was mineralized over a 17 day period. Growth of the fungi in symbiosis with P. sylvestris stimulated greater mineralization than when fungi were grown in absence of the host. S. variegatus was more efficient than P. involutus (in the presence of P. sylveslris) at mineralizing 2,4- dichlorophenol. Mineralization in vermiculite culture was greatly reduced compared to liquid culture. Only 3% of the 2,4-dichlorophenol was mineralized after 13 days in vermiculite culture for the most efficient degrading treatment.

Argilas aplicadas a estudos litoestratigráficos e paleoambientais na bacia sedimentar de Aveiro

A Bacia Sedimentar de Aveiro corresponde essencialmente à actual parte terminal da Bacia Hidrográfica do rio Vouga, nela se incluindo o sistema lagunar impropriamente designado por "Ria de Aveiro". O conhecimento que existe da geologia sub-superficial da referida Bacia tem beneficiado das informações proporcionadas por numerosas sondagens profundas efectuadas para pesquisa e produção de água subterrânea. O presente trabalho tem como objectivo principal ensaiar a utilização da mineralogia, sedimentologia, e geoquímica das fracções finas dos sedimentos, com ênfase na fracção argilosa, para o estabelecimento de uma mais precisa litoestratigrafia das formações sedimentares da Bacia Sedimentar de Aveiro e para a elaboração de análises paleoclimáticas, paleogeográficas e estruturais. Foram estudadas 95 sondagens profundas, dentre as quais se seleccionaram 27, que foram objecto de estudo mais detalhado, mineralógico e geoquímico. As técnicas analíticas utilizadas foram a Difracção de Raios X, a Microscopia Electrónica de Transmissão, a Espectrometria de Fluorescência de Raios X e a Fotometria de Chama. Obtiveram-se resultados de índole mineralógica e geoquímica, com os quais se elaboraram para cada sondagem "logs" mineralógicos e geoquímicos. Os resultados obtidos permitiram a caracterização das unidades litoestratigráficas presentes na região estudada, destacando-se os seguintes aspectos: I) predomínio de Caulinite nas unidades cretácicas (com excepção das Argilas de Aveiro) e nas unidades jurássicas (com excepção das Margas de Dagorda); 2) predomínio de llite nas unidades pós-cretácicas (com excepção do Quaternário), nas Argilas de Aveiro, nas Margas de Dagorda e no Grés de Eirol; 3) presença muito significativa (pontualmente predominante) de Esmectite nas unidades pós-cretácicas III, II e I, nas Argilas de Aveiro e no Grés de Verba; 4) presença (discreta) de Vermiculite e de Caulinite-Esmectite no Quaternário; 5) presença significativa de Clorite nas unidades infra-cretácicas Margas de Eiras, Margas de Dagorda e, sobretudo, Grés de Eirol, assim como, com carácter mais acessório, nas unidades Camadas de S. Miguel e Camadas de Coimbra e também em certos níveis das unidades pós-cretácicas; 6) presença (por vezes meramente vestigial) de Paligorsquite nas unidades pós-cretácicas II e I, e nas unidades infra-cretácicas, e de Sepiolite na unidade pós-cretácica I e nas unidades infra-cretácicas Camadas de S. Miguel e Margas de Dagorda.(...)

In vitro spore germination of Polystichum drepanum, a threatened fern from Madeira Island

Polystichum drepanum (Sw) C. Presl is a threatened fern endemic to a few forest areas in the north-west of Madeira Island. The aims of this work were to establish suitable culture conditions for in vitro germination of spores, and to evaluate short-term storage conditions for P drepanum spores. The highest frequency of germination was obtained in Murishage and Skoog (MS) liquid medium, without agitation. However, gametophytes maintained in MS liquid medium did not grow and, after 4 weeks, became anoxic and died. Thus, after germination in liquid medium, gametophytes were transferred to an MS double-phase culture system for further growth. The effects of storage period, temperature, and relative humidity during storage on in vitro spore germination were studied. Spore viability was assessed after 2, 4 and 6 months, and high viability (> 94%) was observed in all the assays. However, germination capability decreased with increased storage periods. The number of sporophytes obtained also decreased with prolonged storage periods. The results indicate that spores of R drepanum stored for 4 months at 21 degrees C maintain high viability and high germination frequency. ne sporophytes obtained were acclimatised in a mixture of peat and vermiculite [2:1 (v/v)] under high relative humidity (90-95%). Seventy-five sporophytes were successfully acclimatised to ex vitro conditions and showed active growth in the glasshouse.

The effect of nitrate fertilization on the distribution of exported 14c-photosynthate in nodulated soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) plants

Soybean (Glycine ~ (L.) Merr. cv. Harosoy 63) plants inoculated with Rhizobium japonicum were grown in vermiculite in the presence or absence of nitrate fertilization for up to 6 weeks after planting. Overall growth of nodulated plants was enhanced in the presence of nitrate fertilization, while the extent of nodule development was reduced. Although the number of nodules was not affected by nitrate fertilization when plants were grown at a light intensity limiting for photosynthesis, at light intensities approaching or exceeding the light saturation point for photosynthesis, nitrate fertilization resulted in at least a 30% reduction in nodule numbers. The mature, first trifoliate leaf of 21 day old plants was allowed to photoassimi1ate 14C02. One hour after·· the initial exposure to 14C02, the , plants were harvested and the 14C radioactivity was determined in the 80% ethanol-soluble fraction: in. o:rider to assess· "the extent of photoassimilate export and the pattern of distribution of exported 14C. The magnitude of 14C export was not affected by the presence of nitrate fertilization. However, there was a significant effect on the distribution pattern, particularly with regard to the partitioning of 14C-photosynthate between the nodules and the root tissue. In the presence of nitrate fertilization, less than 6% of the exported 14C photosynthate was recovered from the nodules, with much larger amounts (approximately 37%) being recovered from the root tissue. In the absence of nitrate fertilization, recovery of exported 14C-photosynthate from the nodules (19 to 27%) was approximately equal to that from the root tissue (24 to 33%). By initiating- or terminating the applications of nitrate at 14 days of age, it was determined that the period from day 14 to day 21 after planting was particularly significant for the development of nodules initiated earlier. Addition of nitrate fertilization at this time inhibited further nodule development while stimulating plant growth, whereas removal of nitrate fertilization stimulated nodule development. The results obtained are consistent with the hypothesis that nodule development is inhibited by nitrate fertilization through a reduction in the availability of photosynthate to the nodules.

Influence of aluminum hydroxide on potassium release from two Colombian soils

The effect of sesquioxides on the mechanisms of chemical reactions that govern the transformation between exchangeable potassium (Kex) and non-exchangeable K (Knex) was studied on acid tropical soils from Colombia: Caribia with predominantly 2 : 1 clay minerals and High Terrace with predominantly 1 : 1 clay minerals and sesquioxides. Illite and vermiculite are the main clay minerals in Caribia followed by kaolinite, gibbsite, and plagioclase, and kaolinite is the major clay mineral in High Terrace followed by hydroxyl-Al interlayered vermiculite, quartz, and pyrophyllite. The soils have 1.8 and 0.5% of K2O, respectively. They were used either untreated or prepared by adding AlCl3 and NaOH, which produced aluminum hydroxide. The soils were percolated continuously with 10mM NH4OAc at pH 7.0 and 10 mM CaCl2 at pH 5.8 for 120 h at 6 mL h(-1) to examine the release of Kex and Knex. In the untreated soils, NH4+ and Ca-2(+) released the same amounts of Kex from Caribia, whereas NH4+ released about twice as much Kex as Ca2+ from High Terrace. This study proposes that the small ionic size of NH4+ (0.54nm) enables it to enter more easily into the K sites at the broken edges of the kaolinite where Ca2+ (0.96 nm) cannot have access. As expected for a soil dominated by 2 : 1 clay minerals, Ca2+ caused Knex to be released from Caribia with no release by NH4+. No Knex was released by either ion from High Terrace. After treatment with aluminum hydroxide, K release from the exchangeable fraction was reduced in Caribia due to the blocking of the exchange sites but release of Knex was not affected. The treatment increased the amount of Kex released from the High Terrace soil and the release of Knex remained negligible although with Ca2+ the distinction between Kex and Knex was unclear. The increase in Kex was attributed to the initially acidic conditions produced by adding AlCl3 which may have dissolved interlayered aluminum hydroxide from the vermiculite present, thus exposing trapped K as exchangeable K. The subsequent precipitation of aluminum hydroxide when NaOH was added did not interfere with the release of this K, and so was probably formed mostly on the surface of the dominant kaolinite. Measurement of availability of K by standard methods using NH4 salts could result in overestimates in High Terrace and this may be a more general shortcoming of the methods in kaolinitic soils.

Effects of straw and silicon soil amendments on some foliar and stem-base diseases in pot-grown winter wheat

Four foliar and two stem-base pathogens were inoculated onto wheat plants grown in different substrates in pot experiments. Soils from four different UK locations were each treated in three ways: (i) straw incorporated in the field at 10 t ha−1 several months previously; (ii) silicon fertilization at 100 mg L−1 during the experiment; and (iii) no amendments. A sand and vermiculite mix was used with and without silicon amendment. The silicon treatment increased plant silica concentrations in all experiments, but incorporating straw was not associated with raised plant silica concentrations. Blumeria graminis and Puccinia recondita were inoculated by shaking infected plants over the test plants, followed by suitable humid periods. The silicon treatment reduced powdery mildew (B. graminis) substantially in sand and vermiculite and in two of the soils, but there were no effects on the slight infection by brown rust (P. recondita). Phaeosphaeria nodorum and Mycosphaerella graminicola were inoculated as conidial suspensions. Leaf spot caused by P. nodorum was reduced in silicon-amended sand and vermiculite; soil was not tested. Symptoms of septoria leaf blotch caused by M. graminicola were reduced by silicon amendment in a severely infected sand and vermiculite experiment but not in soil or a slightly infected sand and vermiculite experiment. Oculimacula yallundae (eyespot) and Fusarium culmorum (brown foot rot) were inoculated as agar plugs on the stem base. Severity of O. yallundae was reduced by silicon amendment of two of the soils but not sand and vermiculite; brown foot rot symptoms caused by F. culmorum were unaffected by silicon amendment. The straw treatment reduced severity of powdery mildew but did not detectably affect the other pathogens. Both straw and silicon treatments appeared to increase plant resistance to all diseases only under high disease pressure.

Estimating root–soil contact from 3D X-ray microtomographs

Adequate contact with the soil is essential for water and nutrient adsorption by plant roots, but the determination of root–soil contact is a challenging task because it is difficult to visualize roots in situ and quantify their interactions with the soil at the scale of micrometres. A method to determine root–soil contact using X-ray microtomography was developed. Contact areas were determined from 3D volumetric images using segmentation and iso-surface determination tools. The accuracy of the method was tested with physical model systems of contact between two objects (phantoms). Volumes, surface areas and contact areas calculated from the measured phantoms were compared with those estimated from image analysis. The volume was accurate to within 0.3%, the surface area to within 2–4%, and the contact area to within 2.5%. Maize and lupin roots were grown in soil (<2 mm) and vermiculite at matric potentials of −0.03 and −1.6 MPa and in aggregate fractions of 4–2, 2–1, 1–0.5 and < 0.5 mm at a matric potential of −0.03 MPa. The contact of the roots with their growth medium was determined from 3D volumetric images. Macroporosity (>70 µm) of the soil sieved to different aggregate fractions was calculated from binarized data. Root-soil contact was greater in soil than in vermiculite and increased with decreasing aggregate or particle size. The differences in root–soil contact could not be explained solely by the decrease in porosity with decreasing aggregate size but may also result from changes in particle and aggregate packing around the root.

Sulphate and sulphurous acid alter the relative susceptibility of wheat to Phaeosphaeria nodorum and Mycosphaerella graminicola

The relative abundances of DNA of Mycosphaerella graminicola and Phaeosphaeria nodorum in archived wheat samples are closely correlated with UK anthropogenic emissions of oxidized sulphur over the last 160 years. To test whether this could be a causal relationship, possible modes of action of sulphur on the two fungi were examined. Mycelial growth of the two fungi in solutions of sulphurous acid was similar. Sulphurous acid at pH 4 reduced percentage germination of P. nodorum conidia more strongly than M. graminicola conidia. In spray inoculations of wheat cv. Squarehead’s Master, Cappelle Desprez and Riband with water or sulphurous acid (pH 4), the ratio of leaves infected by P. nodorum to leaves infected by M. graminicola was increased by factors of 2.5, 2.1 and 0.6, respectively at pH 4. The same three cultivars of wheat were grown in sand and vermiculite and fertilized with nutrient solution containing 2.5 or 0.5 mM sulphate. Both pathogens infected less frequently at 2.5 mM sulphate, by a factor of about 2. The severity of infection by M. graminicola was reduced on all three cultivars by a factor of about 4-5 at 2.5mM sulphate, but severity of P. nodorum was reduced only by a factor of about 2. Both elevated free sulphate concentrations in soil and sulphite in rainwater could therefore increase the prevalence of P. nodorum relative to M. graminicola, which is consistent with the historical changes in abundance

A new data set of soil mineralogy for dust-cycle modeling

The mineralogy of airborne dust affects the impact of dust particles on direct and indirect radiative forcing, on atmospheric chemistry and on biogeochemical cycling. It is determined partly by the mineralogy of the dust-source regions and partly by size-dependent fractionation during erosion and transport. Here we present a data set that characterizes the clay and silt-sized fractions of global soil units in terms of the abundance of 12 minerals that are important for dust–climate interactions: quartz, feldspars, illite, smectite, kaolinite, chlorite, vermiculite, mica, calcite, gypsum, hematite and goethite. The basic mineralogical information is derived from the literature, and is then expanded following explicit rules, in order to characterize as many soil units as possible. We present three alternative realizations of the mineralogical maps, taking the uncertainties in the mineralogical data into account. We examine the implications of the new database for calculations of the single scattering albedo of airborne dust and thus for dust radiative forcing.

Polyamines, amino acids, IAA and ABA contents during Ocotea catharinensis seed germination

The aim of this work was to Study biochemical variations of IAA (indole-3-acetic acid), ABA (abscisic acid). PAs (polyamines) and amino acids at endogenous levels, during seed germination in Ocotea catharinensis. Seeds were germinated in a vermiculite substratum (100%), samples being collected after 15, 30 and 60 days. Total amino acid levels decreased during the first 15 days. Followed by all increment at the end of germination. Among amino acids, higher concentration was observed in asparagine, this being the predominant amino acid during the whole germination period. Total PAs (free + conjugated) content increased during the first 15 days, followed by a decrease and stabilization between 30 and 60 days of germination. Among the PAs, free putrescine levels rose during the first 15 days, followed by a drop and Stabilization up to 60 days of germination, while spermidine and spermine (spm) contents diminished during the period. Only spin was detected in a conjugated form, with increasing concentrations starting from 30 days on. IAA levels increased during tire first 15 days. followed by a decrease and stabilization until the end of germination (60 days), while ABA contents dwindled during the first 15 days, with similar Values until the end of germination.

Adsorption of Pb(2+), Cu(2+) and Cd(2+) in FDU-1 silica and FDU-1 silica modified with humic acid

Ordered mesoporous silica with cubic structure, type FDU-1, was synthesized under strong acid media using B-50-6600 poly(ethylene oxide)-poly(butilene oxide)-poly(ethylene oxide) triblock copolymer (EO(39)BO(47)EO(39)) and tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS). Humic acid (HA) was modified to the synthesis process at a concentration of 1.5 mmol per gram of SiO(2). Thermogravimetry, small angle X-ray diffraction, nitrogen adsorption and high resolution transmission electron microscopy were used to characterize the samples. The pristine FDU-1 and FDU-1 with incorporated 1.5 mmol of HA were tested for adsorption of Pb(2+), Cu(2+) and Cd(2+) in aqueous solution. Incorporation of humic acid into the FDU-1 silica afforded an adsorbent with strong affinity for Cd(2+), Cu(2+) and Pb(2+) from single ion solutions. Adsorption of Cu(2+) was significantly enhanced after incorporation of humic acid, a fact that can be explained by the formation of complexes with carboxylic and phenolic groups at low concentrations of the metal cation. The results demonstrated the potential applicability of FDU-1 with incorporated HA in the removal of low concentrations of heavy metal cations from aqueous solution, such as wastewaters, after usual precipitation of metal hydroxides in alkaline medium and proper pH conditioning in the range between 6 and 7. (C) 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Study of Hydrated Bentonite

Impedance spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) were used to investigate the mobility of water molecules located in the interlayer space of H(+) - exchanged bentonite clay. The conductivity obtained by ac measurements was 1.25 x 10(-4) S/cm at 298 K. Proton ((1)H) lineshapes and spin-lattice relaxation times were measured as a function of temperature over the temperature range 130-320 K. The NMR experiments exhibit the qualitative features associated with the proton motion, namely the presence of a (1)H NMR line narrowing and a well-defined spin-lattice relaxation rate maximum. The temperature dependence of the proton spin-lattice relaxation rates was analyzed with the spectral density function appropriate for proton dynamics in a two-dimensional system. The self-diffusion coefficient estimated from our NMR data, D similar to 2 x 10(-7) cm(2)/s at 300 K, is consistent with those reported for exchanged montmorillonite clay hydrates studied by NMR and quasi-elastic neutron scattering (QNS).

Effect of sonication on the particle size of montmorillonite clays

This paper reports on the effect of sonication on SAz-1 and SWy-1 montmorillonite suspensions. Changes in the size of the particles of these materials and modifications of their properties have been investigated. The variation of the particle size has been analyzed by DLS (dynamic light scattering). In all cases the clay particles show a bimodal distribution. Sonication resulted in a decrease of the larger modal diameter, as well as a reduction of its volume percentage. Simultaneously, the proportion of the smallest particles increases. After 60 min of sonication, SAz-1 presented a very broad particle size distribution with a modal diameter of 283 nm. On the other hand, the SWy-1 sonicated for 60 min presents a bimodal distribution of particles at 140 and 454 nm. Changes in the properties of the clay suspensions due to sonication were evaluated spectroscopically from dye-clay interactions, using Methylene Blue. The acidic sites present in the interlamellar region, which are responsible for dye protonation, disappeared after sonication of the clay. The changes in the size of the scattering particles and the lack of acidic sites after sonication suggest that sonication induces delamination of the clay particles. (c) 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.