Efeitos da desnutrição protéica sobre o metabolismo cerebral e sistemas glutamatérgico e GABAérgico sob condições de excitotoxicidade em SNC de ratos wistar

Para um adequado funcionamento do SNC, são necessárias complexas interações entre os sistemas de neurotransmissão inibitório e excitatório. Desequilíbrios nos sistemas, e/ou na sua interação, podem acarretar comprometimentos neuropsiquiátricos. Várias etapas do desenvolvimento ontogenético cerebral, incluindo proliferação e migração neuronal, crescimento cerebral e mielinização, astrocitogênese e morte celular programada, são alteradas pela desnutrição protéica. Alterações no sistema glutamatérgico decorrentes de desnutrição, padrões de desenvolvimento afetados no sistema GABAérgico como a atividade da glutamato descarboxilase (GAD) e mRNA de subunidades de receptores GABAA , alterações nas reações a fármacos envolvendo o sistema GABAérgico, além de estudos epidemiológicos que apontam para a maior incidência de doenças neuropsiquiátricas em populações desnutridas precocemente e, ainda, os transtornos nas complexas interações entre células neuronais e gliais, que acompanham o desenvolvimento destas patologias, levantam questionamentos sobre as implicações da desnutrição sobre o metabolismo cerebral e parâmetros inibitórios e excitatórios sob condições de excitotoxicidade. Considerando estes aspectos, investigou-se a sensibilidade a drogas convulsivantes agindo sobre os sistemas glutamatérgico (ácido quinolínico) e GABAérgico (picrotoxina), assim como se procurou detectar interferências provocadas pela desnutrição protéica gestacional e pós-natal, e/ou drogas em um dos parâmetros, que, além da biossíntese, liberação, interação com receptores, determina uma neurotransmissão eficiente, qual seja: na inativação dos dois principais neurotransmissores excitatório e inibitório, glutamato e GABA, respectivamente, por meio da captação mediada por transportadores localizados nas membranas neuronais e gliais de córtex e hipocampo de ratos em desenvolvimento, assim como parâmetros ontogenéticos ligados ao transporte de GABA. A sensibilidade à picrotoxina foi avaliada ainda segundo parâmetros metabólicos, envolvendo o metabolismo da glicose e do acetato, procurando detectar interações neurônio-glia na resposta à droga, assim como a ocorrência de peroxidação lipídica, dado o seu envolvimento no processo convulsivante. Considerando que o acetato é metabolizado predominantemente pelos astrócitos, células que têm importante papel no fluxo de substratos energéticos aos neurônios, a sua oxidação foi avaliada em fatias de córtex cerebral de ratos adultos, frente a diferentes concentrações extracelulares de potássio. A desnutrição acarretou menor sensibilidade à ação convulsivante do ácido quinolínico, em ratos de 25 dias de idade, excluindo alterações na captação de glutamato como mecanismo envolvido, uma vez que este parâmetro não foi afetado pela desnutrição e/ou droga. Contrariamente, a desnutrição induziu maior sensibilidade à ação convulsivante da picrotoxina, em ratos de 25 dias, o que pode estar relacionado à maior captação de GABA por fatias de córtex cerebral e hipocampo evidenciadas no grupo desnutrido. A desnutrição alterou o perfil ontogenético da captação de GABA por fatias de córtex cerebral e também o perfil inibitório da β-alanina (inibidor de GAT-3), dando suporte à hipótese de que a maior captação de GABA em ratos desnutridos em desenvolvimento seja devida predominantemente a este transportador. A maior sensibilidade à picrotoxina no grupo desnutrido também foi evidenciada pelo maior estímulo à oxidação da glicose em fatias de córtex cerebral (que também é idade dependente) e peroxidação lipídica. Enquanto em ratos imaturos a administração de uma única dose de picrotoxina mostrou a maior susceptibilidade de ratos desnutridos, no procedimento de “kindling” químico pela picrotoxina em ratos em desenvolvimento, a susceptibilidade mostrou-se sexo e tratamento nutricional dependente. A picrotoxina estimulou a oxidação do acetato a CO2, mas não a da glicose em período precoce pós picrotoxina (24 horas) em fatias de córtex e hipocampo de ratos de 25 dias, indicando o envolvimento astrocitário na resposta ao agente convulsivante, independente do tratamento nutricional. A administração crônica de picrotoxina acarretou estímulo à oxidação da glicose em fatias de córtex de ratos desnutridos, mostrando efeito tempo e tratamento nutricional-dependente sobre o metabolismo da glicose, sem alteração da oxidação do acetato. Altas concentrações de potássio extracelular aumentaram a oxidação do acetato em fatias de córtex cerebral, em função da redução intracelular de sódio em ratos controle e desnutridos adultos; o agravamento do déficit nutricional exacerbou a oxidação do acetato em fatias de cerebelo. A desnutrição pré e pós-natal afeta respostas envolvendo os sistemas GABAérgico e glutamatérgico em situações de excitotoxicidade, provocada por antagonista de receptor GABAA, picrotoxina e por hiperestimulador do sistema glutamatérgico, ácido quinolínico, em ratos em desenvolvimento, assim como parâmetros ontogenéticos ligados ao transporte de GABA. A severidade da restrição nutricional é fator determinante da exacerbação do estímulo à oxidação do acetato. Além do mais, a desnutrição parece afetar a interação neurônio-glia em condições de excitotoxicidade.

Antipanic procedures reduce the strychnine-facilitated wild running of rats

Wild running (WR) behavior of rats seen in response to intense acoustic stimulation of audiogenic seizure-paradigm is very similar to the panic flight and can be facilitated by subconvulsive doses of strychnine. The present work aimed to test whether antipanic procedures, such as dorsal periaqueductal gray (dPAG) lesion and imipramine treatments, affect the strychnine-facilitated WR. In study 1, six Wistar male adult rats with electrolytic lesion of dPAG had their WR completely blocked, whereas it was facilitated in 50% of sham-lesioned control rats by a dose of 0.5 mg/kg of strychnine administered intraperitoneal. This effect was not reproduced with a higher strychnine dose (1.0 mg/kg). In study 2, the effects of imipramine were investigated by testing 36 rats under a dose of strychnine that induces WR in 50% of subjects. They were assigned into three experimental groups: imipramine treatments of 5.0 and 10.0 mg/kg, and infusions of saline. All these treatments were subchronical with three intraperitoneal injections within 24h. Imipramine (10.0mg/kg) reduced the incidence of WR in comparison to the saline results. It is concluded that strychnine-facilitated WR is reduced by antipanic procedures and, therefore, can be viewed as a manifestation closely related to panic. (C) 2003 Elsevier B.V. B.V. All rights reserved.

Endogenous opioid peptide-mediated neurotransmission in central and pericentral nuclei of the inferior colliculus recruits mu(1)-opioid receptor to modulate post-ictal antinociception

Background: The aim of the present work was to investigate the involvement of the mu(1)-endogenous opioid peptide receptor-mediated system in post-ictal antinociception. Methods: Antinociceptive responses were determined by the tail-flick test after pre-treatment with the selective mu(1)-opioid receptor antagonist naloxonazine, peripherally or centrally administered at different doses. Results: Peripheral subchronic (24 h) pre-treatment with naloxonazine antagonised the antinociception elicited by tonic-clonic seizures. Acute (10 min) pre-treatment, however, did not have the same effect. In addition, microinjections of naloxonazine into the central, dorsal cortical and external cortical nuclei of the inferior colliculus antagonised tonic-clonic seizure-induced antinociception. Neither acute (10-min) peripheral pre-treatment with naloxonazine nor subchronic intramesencephalic blockade of mu(1)-opioid receptors resulted in consistent statistically significant differences in the severity of tonic-clonic seizures shown by Racine's index (1972), although the intracollicular specific antagonism of mu(1)-opioid receptor decreased the duration of seizures. Conclusion: mu(1)-Opioid receptors and the inferior colliculus have been implicated in several endogenous opioid peptide-mediated responses such as antinociception and convulsion. The present findings suggest the involvement of mu(1)-opiate receptors of central and pericentral nuclei of the inferior colliculus in the modulation of tonic-clonic seizures and in the organisation of post-ictal antinociception. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Psychiatric comorbidities in temporal lobe epilepsy: Possible relationships between psychotic disorders and involvement of limbic circuits

Objective: Mounting evidence suggests that the limbic system is pathologically involved in cases of psychiatric comorbidities in temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) patients. Our objective was to develop a conceptual framework describing how neuropathological and connectivity changes might contribute to the development of psychosis and to the potential neurobiological mechanisms that cause schizophrenia-like psychosis in TLE patients. Methods: In this review, clinical and neuropathological findings, especially brain circuitry of the limbic system, were examined together to enhance our understanding of the association between TLE and psychosis. Finally, the importance of animal models in epilepsy and psychiatric disorders was discussed. Conclusions: TLE and psychiatric symptoms coexist more frequently than chance would predict. Damage and deregulation among critical anatomical regions, such as the hippocampus, amygdala, thalamus, and the temporal, frontal and cingulate cortices, might predispose TLE brains to psychosis. Studies of the effects of kindling and injection of neuroactive substances on behavior and electrophysiological patterns may offer a model of how limbic seizures in humans increase the vulnerability of TLE patients to psychiatric symptoms.

Impact of Corticosterone Treatment on Spontaneous Seizure Frequency and Epileptiform Activity in Mice with Chronic Epilepsy

Stress is the most commonly reported precipitating factor for seizures in patients with epilepsy. Despite compelling anecdotal evidence for stress-induced seizures, animal models of the phenomena are sparse and possible mechanisms are unclear. Here, we tested the hypothesis that increased levels of the stress-associated hormone corticosterone ( CORT) would increase epileptiform activity and spontaneous seizure frequency in mice rendered epileptic following pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus. We monitored video-EEG activity in pilocarpine-treated mice 24/7 for a period of four or more weeks, during which animals were serially treated with CORT or vehicle. CORT increased the frequency and duration of epileptiform events within the first 24 hours of treatment, and this effect persisted for up to two weeks following termination of CORT injections. Interestingly, vehicle injection produced a transient spike in CORT levels - presumably due to the stress of injection - and a modest but significant increase in epileptiform activity. Neither CORT nor vehicle treatment significantly altered seizure frequency; although a small subset of animals did appear responsive. Taken together, our findings indicate that treatment of epileptic animals with exogenous CORT designed to mimic chronic stress can induce a persistent increase in interictal epileptiform activity.

Psychiatric comorbidities in temporal lobe epilepsy: possible relationships between psychotic disorders and involvement of limbic circuits

OBJECTIVE: Mounting evidence suggests that the limbic system is pathologically involved in cases of psychiatric comorbidities in temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) patients. Our objective was to develop a conceptual framework describing how neuropathological and connectivity changes might contribute to the development of psychosis and to the potential neurobiological mechanisms that cause schizophrenia-like psychosis in TLE patients. METHODS: In this review, clinical and neuropathological findings, especially brain circuitry of the limbic system, were examined together to enhance our understanding of the association between TLE and psychosis. Finally, the importance of animal models in epilepsy and psychiatric disorders was discussed. CONCLUSIONS: TLE and psychiatric symptoms coexist more frequently than chance would predict. Damage and deregulation among critical anatomical regions, such as the hippocampus, amygdala, thalamus, and the temporal, frontal and cingulate cortices, might predispose TLE brains to psychosis. Studies of the effects of kindling and injection of neuroactive substances on behavior and electrophysiological patterns may offer a model of how limbic seizures in humans increase the vulnerability of TLE patients to psychiatric symptoms.

Study on the regulation of mRNA expression of GABA transporters (GAT-1 and GAT-3) in rat brain

The submitted work concentrated on the study of mRNA expression of two distinct GABA transporters, GAT-1 and GAT-3, in the rat brain. For the detection and quantification of the chosen mRNAs, appropriate methods had to be established. Two methods, ribonuclease protection assay (RPA) and competitive RT-PCR were emloyed in the present study. Competitive RT-PCR worked out to be 20 times more sensitive as RPA. Unlike the sensitivity, the fidelity of both techniques was comparable with respect to their intra- and inter-assay variability.The basal mRNA levels of GAT-1 and GAT-3 were measured in various brain regions. Messenger RNAs for both transporters were detected in all tested brain regions. Depending on the region, the observed mRNA level for GAT-1 was 100-300 higher than for GAT-3. The GAT-1 mRNA levels were similar in all tested regions. The distribution of GAT-3 mRNA seemed to be more region specific. The strongest GAT-3 mRNA expression was detected in striatum, medulla oblongata and thalamus. The lowest levels of GAT-3 were in cortex frontalis and cerebellum.Furthermore, the mRNA expression for GAT-1 and GAT-3 was analysed under altered physiological conditions; in kindling model of epilepsy and also after long-term treatment drugs modulating GABAergic transmission. In kindling model of epilepsy, altered GABA transporter function was hypothesised by During and coworkers (During et al., 1995) after observed decrease in binding of nipecotic acid, a GAT ligand, in hippocampus of kindled animals. In the present work, the mRNA levels were measured in hippocampus and whole brain samples. Neither GAT-1 nor GAT-3 showed altered transcription in any tested region of kindled animals compared to controls. This leads to conclusion that an altered functionality of GABA transporters is involved in epilepsy rather than a change in their expression.The levels of GAT-1 and GAT-3 mRNAs were also measured in the brain of rats chronically treated with diazepam or zolpidem, GABAA receptor agonists. Prior to the molecular biology tests, behavioural analysis was carried out with chronically and acutely treated animals. In two tests, open field and elevated plus-maze, the basal activity exploration and anxiety-like behaviour were analysed. Zolpidem treatment increased exploratory activity. There were observed no differencies between chronically and acutely treated animals. Diazepam increased exploratory activity and decresed anxiety-like behaviour when applied acutely. This effect disappeard after chronic administration of diazepam. The loss of effect suggested a development of tolerance to effects of diazepam following long-term administration. Double treatment, acute injection of diazepam after chronic diazepam treatment, confirmed development of a tolerance to effects of diazepam. Also, the mRNAs for GAT-1 and GAT-3 were analysed in cortex frontalis, hippocampus, cerebellum and whole brain samples of chronically treated animals. The mRNA levels for any of tested GABA transporters did not show significant changes in any of tested region neither after diazepam nor zolpidem treatment. Therefore, changes in GAT-1 and GAT-3 transcription are probably not involved in adaptation of GABAergic system to long-term benzodiazepine administration and so in development of tolerance to benzodiazepines.

Apoptosis and proliferation of dentate gyrus neurons after single and intermittent limbic seizures

Neuronal apoptosis was observed in the rat dentate gyrus in two experimental models of human limbic epilepsy. Five hours after one hippocampal kindling stimulation, a marked increase of in situ terminal deoxynucleotidyltransferase-mediated dUTP nick-end labeling (TUNEL) of fragmented DNA was observed in nuclei located within and on the hilar border of the granule cell layer and in the polymorphic region. Forty kindling stimulations with 5-min interval produced higher numbers of labeled nuclei compared with one stimulation. The increase of TUNEL-positive nuclei was prevented by the protein synthesis inhibitor cycloheximide but not affected by the N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antagonist MK-801. Kainic acid-induced seizures lead to a pattern of labeling in the hippocampal formation identical to that evoked by kindling. A large proportion of cells displaying TUNEL-positive nuclei was double-labeled by the neuron-specific antigen NeuN, demonstrating the neuronal identity of apoptotic cells. Either 1 or 40 kindling stimulations also gave rise to a marked increase of the number of cells double-labeled with the mitotic marker bromodeoxyuridine and NeuN in the subgranular zone and on the hilar border of the dentate granule cell layer. The present data show that single and intermittent, brief seizures induce both apoptotic death and proliferation of dentate gyrus neurons. We hypothesize that these processes, occurring early during epileptogenesis, are primary events in the development of hippocampal pathology in animals and possibly also in patients suffering from temporal lobe epilepsy.

A nerve growth factor peptide retards seizure development and inhibits neuronal sprouting in a rat model of epilepsy.

Kindling, an animal model of epilepsy wherein seizures are induced by subcortical electrical stimulation, results in the upregulation of neurotrophin mRNA and protein in the adult rat forebrain and causes mossy fiber sprouting in the hippocampus. Intraventricular infusion of a synthetic peptide mimic of a nerve growth factor domain that interferes with the binding of neurotrophins to their receptors resulted in significant retardation of kindling and inhibition of mossy fiber sprouting. These findings suggest a critical role for neurotrophins in both kindling and kindling-induced synaptic reorganization.