Market access of Papua New Guinea bananas (Musa spp.) with particular respect to banana fly (Bactrocera musae (Tryon)) (Diptera: Tephritidae)

International market access for fresh commodities is regulated by international accepted phytosanitary guidelines, the objectives of which are to reduce the biosecurity risk of plant pest and disease movement. Papua New Guinea (PNG) has identified banana as a potential export crop and to help meet international market access requirements, this thesis provides information for the development of a pest risk analysis (PRA) for PNG banana fruit. The PRA is a three step process which first identifies the pests associated with a particular commodity or pathway, then assesses the risk associated with those pests, and finally identifies risk management options for those pests if required. As the first step of the PRA process, I collated a definitive list on the organisms associated with the banana plant in PNG using formal literature, structured interviews with local experts, grey literature and unpublished file material held in PNG field research stations. I identified 112 organisms (invertebrates, vertebrate, pathogens and weeds) associated with banana in PNG, but only 14 of these were reported as commonly requiring management. For these 14 I present detailed information summaries on their known biology and pest impact. A major finding of the review was that of the 14 identified key pests, some research information occurs for 13. The single exception for which information was found to be lacking was Bactrocera musae (Tryon), the banana fly. The lack of information for this widely reported ‘major pest on PNG bananas’ would hinder the development of a PNG banana fruit PRA. For this reason the remainder of the thesis focused on this organism, particularly with respect to generation of information required by the PRA process. Utilising an existing, but previously unanalysed fruit fly trapping database for PNG, I carried out a Geographic Information System analysis of the distribution and abundance of banana in four major regions of PNG. This information is required for a PRA to determine if banana fruit grown in different parts of the country are at different risks from the fly. Results showed that the fly was widespread in all cropping regions and that temperature and rainfall were not significantly correlated with banana fly abundance. Abundance of the fly was significantly correlated (albeit weakly) with host availability. The same analysis was done with four other PNG pest fruit flies and their responses to the environmental factors differed to banana fly and each other. This implies that subsequent PRA analyses for other PNG fresh commodities will need to investigate the risk of each of these flies independently. To quantify the damage to banana fruit caused by banana fly in PNG, local surveys and one national survey of banana fruit infestation were carried out. Contrary to expectations, infestation was found to be very low, particularly in the widely grown commercial cultivar, Cavendish. Infestation of Cavendish fingers was only 0.41% in a structured, national survey of over 2 700 banana fingers. Follow up laboratory studies showed that fingers of Cavendish, and another commercial variety Lady-finger, are very poor hosts for B. musae, with very low host selection rates by female flies and very poor immature survival. An analysis of a recent (within last decade) incursion of B. musae into the Gazelle Peninsula of East New Britain Province, PNG, provided the final set of B. musae data. Surveys of the fly on the peninsular showed that establishment and spread of the fly in the novel environment was very rapid and thus the fly should be regarded as being of high biosecurity concern, at least in tropical areas. Supporting the earlier impact studies, however, banana fly has not become a significant banana fruit problem on the Gazelle, despite bananas being the primary starch staple of the region. The results of the research chapters are combined in the final Discussion in the form of a B. musae focused PRA for PNG banana fruit. Putting the thesis in a broader context, the Discussion also deals with the apparent discrepancy between high local abundance of banana fly and very low infestation rates. This discussion focuses on host utilisation patterns of specialist herbivores and suggests that local pest abundance, as determined by trapping or monitoring, need not be good surrogate for crop damage, despite this linkage being implicit in a number of international phytosanitary protocols.

Time variation effects of weather conditions in rural MUSA-MIMO-OFDM channels

This paper presents channel measurements and weather data collection experiments conducted in a rural environment for an innovative Multi-User-Single-Antenna (MUSA) MIMO-OFDM technology, proposed for rural areas. MUSA MIMO-OFDM uplink channels are established by placing six user terminals (UT) around one access point (AP). Generated terrain profiles and relative received power plots are presented based on the experimental data. According to the relative received signal, MUSA-MIMO-OFDM uplink channels experience temporal fading. Moreover, the correlation between the relative received power and weather variables are presented. Results show that all weather variables exhibit a negative average correlation with received power. Wind speed records the highest average negative correlation coefficient of -0.35. Local maxima of negative correlation, ranging from 0.49 to 0.78, between the weather variables and relative received signals were registered between 5-6 a.m. The highest measured correlation (-0.78) of this time of the day was exhibited by wind speed. These results show the extend of time variation effects experienced by MUSA-MIMO-OFDM channels deployed in rural environments.

Analysis of rural MUSA-MIMO-OFDM uplink channel capacity

Multi-user single antenna multiple-input multiple-output orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (MUSA-MIMO-OFDM) is a promising technology to improve the spectrum efficiency of fixed wireless broadband access systems in rural areas. This letter investigates the capacity of MUSA-MIMO-OFDM uplink channel by theoretical, simulation, and empirical approaches considering up to six users. We propose an empirical capacity formula suitable for rural areas. Characteristics of channel capacity temporal variations and their relationship with the wind speed, observed in a rural area, are also presented in this letter.

Temporal and spatial patterns of seed dispersal of Musa acuminata by Cynopterus sphinx

The foraging behavior of greater short-nosed fruit bats (Cynopterus sphinx) on wild banana (Musa acuminata) and subsequent dispersal of seeds were studied in the Tropical Rainforest Conservation Area, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Yunnan province, by direct observation of marked fruits, mist netting, and seed collection. The mean number (± SE) of individual C. sphinx captured by mist net were 2.2 ± 0.33/day and 1.4 ± 0.32/day in the rainy season (September to October) and dry season (November to December), respectively; the difference was not significant. The number of seed pellets expelled was 9.0 ± 1.12/day and 7.2 ± 1.37/day in the rainy and dry seasons respectively; again the difference was not significant. The removal curves for marked fruit were similar for 10 focal trees. Fruits were consumed heavily within two weeks after ripening and all the marked fruit were removed within one month. The difference in seed dispersal was significant between different feeding roosts indicating that patterns of seed dispersal may not be uniform. We found the seeds of M. acuminata can be dispersed by C. sphinx to a distance of about 200 m, and C. sphinx can be considered as an effective seed disperser of M. acuminata.

A simplified PCR test for early detection of dwarf off-types in micropropagated Cavendish bananas (Musa spp. AAA)

The dwarf somaclonal variant is a major problem affecting micropropagation of the banana cultivar Williams (Musa spp. AAA; subgroup Cavendish). This problem arises from genetic changes that occur during the tissue culture process. Early identification of this problem is difficult and propagators must wait until plants are ex vitro in order to visualise the dwarfism phenotype. In this study, we have improved a SCAR-based molecular diagnostic technique, developed by Damasco et al. [Acta Hortic. 461 (1997) 157], for the early identification of dwarf off-types. We have included a positive internal control in a multiplex PCR and adapted the technique for use with small amounts of fresh in vitro leaf material as PCR template. The control product is a 500 bp fragment from 18S rRNA and is amplified in all tissues irrespective of phenotype. The use of small in vitro leaf material removing the need for genomic DNA extraction.

Towards the development of a Cavendish banana resistant to race 4 of fusarium wilt: gamma irradiation of micropropagated Dwarf Parfitt (Musa spp., AAA group, Cavendish subgroup)

'Dwarf parfitt', an extra-dwarf Cavendish cultivar with resistance to subtropical race 4 fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense 9Foc), was gamma irradiated at a dose of 20 Gy and putative mutants were recovered with improved agronomic characteristics. Further screening of putative mutants for improved yield and fruit size, as well as a degree of resistence to fusarium wilt, led to the selection of a line (DPM25) with improved productivity when grown on soils infested with subtropical race 4 Foc. DPM25 was equal to the industry standard, 'Williams', in every agronomic trait measured and it consistently showed a lower incidence of fusarium wilt. Further improvement of field resistance to race 4 Foc is needed in DPM25 and further cycles of mutation induction and selction is an option discussed.

The influence of planting density on the production of 'Goldfinger' (Musa spp., AAAB) in the subtropics

'Goldfinger', a tetraploid banana produced from the Fundación Hondureña de Investigación Agrícola (FHIA) breeding program, was released to the Australian industry in 1995. It was promoted as an apple-flavoured dessert banana with resistance to Fusarium wilt race 1 and subtropical race 4, as well as resistance to black and yellow Sigatoka (Mycosphaerella fijiensis and M. musicola, respectively). This study was initiated to provide agronomic information to the banana industry, which was under threat from Fusarium wilt, on a new cultivar which could replace 'Williams' (AAA, Cavendish subgroup) or 'Lady Finger' (AAB, Pome subgroup) in those areas affected by Fusarium wilt. Also few studies had reported on the production characteristics of the new tetraploid hybrids, especially from subtropical areas, and therefore two field sites, one a steep-land farm and the other a level, more productive site, were selected for planting density and spatial arrangement treatments. The optimum density in terms of commercial production, taking into account bunch weight, finger size, length of the production cycle, plant height and ease of management, was 1680 plants/ha on the steep-land site where plants were planted in single rows with 2.5 m × 2.5 m spacings. However on the level site a double-row triangular layout with inter-row distances of 4.5 m to allow vehicular access (1724 plants/ha) gave the best results. With this arrangement plants were in an alternate, triangular arrangement along a row and a spacing of 1.5 m between plants at the points of each triangle and between each block of triangles.

The distribution of badnavirus-infected Musa germplasm from the International Transit Centre, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium

Bioversity International is reviewing its moratorium on the distribution of virus-infected Musa germplasm from the International Transit Centre (ITC), and the ProMusa Crop Protection Working Group has been invited to comment on policy changes. This paper was written to form a basis of discussion among the working group members during the ISHS/ProMusa symposium. It argues that the distribution of Musa germplasm should be guided by the International Plant Protection Convention, which states that it is the responsibility of the importing country, not the exporter, to impose the phytosanitary measures. There may be special circumstances where the release of badnavirus-infected germplasm from the ITC could be justified.

Ramichloridium spp. on Musa in northern Queensland: introducing Ramichloridium ducassei sp. nov. on leaf streaks of Ducasse banana.

The fungi associated with tropical leaf speckle diseases of banana (Musa spp. and cultivars) in northern Queensland were examined from fresh leaves and herbarium specimens. Ramichloridium biverticillatum was predominantly found associated with leaves of Cavendish banana (Musa acuminata cv. Cavendish) and a new species, R. ducassei was found associated with dark brown streaks on leaves of Ducasse banana (Musa acuminata x balbisiana cv. Pisang awak). A key is provided for all of the species of Ramichloridum that are known to occur on Musa.

Growth, yield and Fusarium wilt resistance of six FHIA tetraploid bananas (Musa spp.) grown in the Australian subtropics

Six tetraploid hybrids from Fundación Hondureña de Investigación Agrícola (FHIA) were evaluated in Australia over a five year period. They included three AAAA hybrids (FHIA-02, FHIA-17 and FHIA-23) and three AAAB hybrids (FHIA-01, FHIA-18 and SH-3640.10) and they were compared with industry standards, ‘Williams’ (AAA, Cavendish subgroup) and ‘Lady Finger’ (AAB, Pome subgroup). They were screened for their resistance to Fusarium wilt race 1 and subtropical race 4 caused by the pathogen Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense and they were also grown for several cycles on farms not infested with Fusarium wilt to record their agronomic characteristics. The AAAB hybrids, all derived from female parent ‘Prata Anã’ (AAB, Pome subgroup) were the most resistant to both races of Fusarium wilt and were very productive in the subtropics. They were significantly more productive than ‘Lady Finger’, which was susceptible to both races of Fusarium wilt. The AAAA hybrids, with the exception of FHIA-02 which was very susceptible to Fusarium wilt and displayed the poorest agronomic traits of the six hybrids, produced bunch weights as good as Cavendish but were significantly slower to cycle. FHIA-17 and FHIA-23, both derived from the female parent ‘Highgate’ (AAA, Gros Michel subgroup), were also significantly more resistant to Fusarium wilt than ‘Gros Michel’, while FHIA-17 demonstrated a level of resistance similar to ‘Williams’ and FHIA-23 was intermediate between ‘Lady Finger’ and ‘Williams’

The quest for golden bananas: Investigating carotenoid regulation in a Fe’i group Musa cultivar

The regulation of carotenoid biosynthesis in a high-carotenoid-accumulating Fe’i group Musa cultivar, “Asupina”, has been examined and compared to that of a low-carotenoid-accumulating cultivar, “Cavendish”, to understand the molecular basis underlying carotenogenesis during banana fruit development. Comparisons in the accumulation of carotenoid species, expression of isoprenoid genes, and product sequestration are reported. Key differences between the cultivars include greater carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase 4 (CCD4) expression in “Cavendish” and the conversion of amyloplasts to chromoplasts during fruit ripening in “Asupina”. Chromoplast development coincided with a reduction in dry matter content and fruit firmness. Chromoplasts were not observed in “Cavendish” fruits. Such information should provide important insights for future developments in the biofortification and breeding of banana.

Micropropagación in vitro del clon de banano (Musa sp.) enano ecuatoriano (AAA)

Se establecieron in vitro yemas apicales de banano (Musa sp.) para su micro propagación durante tres sub-cultivos en un medio nutritivo artificial conteniendo sales minerales (MS), tiamina HCI, sacarosa y mio-inositol; variando con fines de estudio, la consistencia física del medio de cultivo (líquido y semi-sólido) y las concentraciones de reguladores de crecimiento: AIA= O y 1 mg/1 y 6-BAP= 5, 7 y 10 mg/1. Durante el establecimiento y multiplicación de los ex plantes se utilizó un cuarto de crecimiento para la incubación con temperaturas de 25 ± 1 ºc e intensidad lumínica de 2 000 lux. Inicialmente se establecieron in vitro 240 yemas apicales para su adaptación, de las cuales un 85 % (204) se adaptaron satisfactoriamente, el 15 % restante fueron descartados por contaminación, fenolización de las paredes del cormo o muerte de los ex plantes por no adaptación. La mayor contaminación se produjo por hongos y en menor medida por bacterias. La proliferación de hijos fue mayor en los medios de cultivo de consistencia semi-sólido en los tres sub-cultivos, correspondiendo los mejores resultados a la variante semi-sólida de los medios MS + 1mg/1 AIA+ 10 mg/16-BAP con promedio de 3.7 hijos por ex plante y 11 hijos en total, seguido por el medio MS_ + O mg/ AIA + 7 mg/1 6-BAP con 3.6 hijos por ex plante y 10.8 en total al final de los tres sub-cultivos. La menor proliferación se presentó en la variante líquida del medio MS + 1 mg/1 AIA + 10 mg/16-BAP con un promedio de 2.1 hijos por explante y 6.3 hijos en total. No se observó tendencia alguna en la proliferación de hijos con el aumento de los sub-cultivos, siendo evidente la influencia de la consistencia del medio de cultivo y la variación en los niveles de reguladores de crecimiento. El nivel más alto de 6-BAP (10 mg/1) utilizado indujo a la formación de multiyemas en los medios de cultivos líquidos, presentándose éstas a partir del II sub­ cultivo. Los medios de consistencia líquida favorecieron el crecimiento in vitro de los explantes, expresándose en un incremento en la altura y peso. Así mismo los medios líquidos indujeron a un desarrollo y crecimiento de raíces en todos los tratamientos estudiados.

Comportamiento de plantas micropropagadas del clon de banano "Enano ecuatoriano" (Musa spp), en condiciones del regen, primer ciclo

Con el objetivo de evaluar el comportamiento en el campo de plantas micro propagadas del clon de banano "Enano Ecuatoriano" se estableció un ensayo comparativo, en Bloque Completamente al Azar, con plantas del mismo clon propagadas de manera convencional (cormo). El estudio se llevó a cabo en áreas del Programa de Recursos Genéticos Nicaragüenses (REGEN) en el periodo comprendido entre marzo 1990 y marzo 1991; en el primer ciclo vegetativo del cultivo. Se evaluó el comportamiento morfológico, productivo y la fenología de las plantas durante el ensayo. No se encontró diferencia entre las vitro-plantas y las plantas cormo en cuanto a Número de hijos, Altura de planta y Área foliar, al momento del inicio de la floración, no obstante las plantas micro propagadas fueron significativamente superiores que las plantas convencionales en cuanto al Número de hojas y Diámetro del pseudotallo. El Rendimiento de las plantas in vitro fue significativamente mayor que las plantas cormo; aunque en la fecha de inicio y duración de la floración lo mismo que en el momento de cosecha no hubo diferencia entre ellos.

Mejoramiento de la eficiencia de propagación in vitro de plátano (Musa AAB cv. Enano)

En el período comprendido de noviembre del año 2001 a julio del año 2002, en el Laboratorio de Cultivo de Tejidos de la Universidad Nacional Agraria (UNA) se realizó el estudio de la propagación in vitro en el cultivo de Plátano, (AAB) cv Enano. A las cuatro semanas del establecimiento se evalúo el porcentaje de fenolización de los ápices, en el medio de cultivo que contenía solamente las sales Murashige y Skoog el 100% de los tejidos produjo el más bajo nivel de fenoles. A las ocho semanas se evalúo el efecto de las variantes de medios de cultivo en la formación de plantas. Cuando se agregó al medio de cultivo 0.3 mg/l de Ácido indolacético y 1 mg/l de Bencil amino purina se registró 53.3% de plantas formadas y el 26% de estas emitieron brotes axilares. En la fase de multiplicación los experimentos se evaluaron a las tres semanas determinándose los mejores tratamientos a través del análisis de Varianza y separación de Medias de Tukey (a= 0.05). Los mejores coeficientes de brotación se presentaron en los medios suplidos con 4 y 5 mg/l de Bencil amino purina, con valores respectivos de 4.2 y 4.46 brotes por planta. La consistencia semisólida del medio de cultivo superó al medio líquido en las variables altura de planta y número de brotes. La mejor combinación tipo de frasco y número de planta, fue con la siembra de cinco brotes en frascos de 200 ml con resultados de brotación de 2.08 y 2.05 respectivamente. En el enraizamiento se comprobó que concentraciones de sacarosa entre 30 g/l y 60 g/l combinadas con 1 y 2 mg/l de Ácido Indol Acético favorecen el incremento de las variables evaluadas. La sobrevivencia de las vitroplantas en condiciones ambientales fue del 100% cuando estas provinieron de medios de cultivos con niveles de sacarosa de 50 y 60 g/l combinadas con 1 y 2 mg/l de Ácido Indol Acético.