Characterization and evaluation of melibiose as novel excipient in tablet compaction

Lactose is probably the most used tablet excipient in the field of pharmacy. Although lactose is thoroughly characterized and available in many different forms there is a need to find a replacer for lactose as a filler/binder in tablet formulations because it has some downsides. Melibiose is a relatively unknown disaccharide that has not been thoroughly characterized and not previously used as an excipient in tablets. Structurally melibiose is close to lactose as it is also formed from the same two monosaccharides, glucose and galactose. Aim of this research is to characterize and to study physicochemical properties of melibiose. Also the potential of melibiose to be used as pharmaceutical tablet excipient, even as a substitute for lactose is evaluated. Current knowledge about fundamentals of tableting and methods for determinating of deformation behavior and tabletability are reviewed. In this research Raman spectroscopy, X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD), near-infrared spectroscopy (NIR) and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) were used to study differences between two melibiose batches purchased from two suppliers. In NIR and FT-IR measurements no difference between materials could be observed. XPRD and Raman however found differences between the two melibiose batches. Also the effects of moisture content and heating to material properties were studied and moisture content of materials seems to cause some differences. Thermal analytical methods, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetry (TG) were used to study thermal behaviour of melibiose and difference between materials was found. Other melibiose batch contains residual water which evaporates at higher temperatures causing the differences in thermal behaviour. Scanning electron microscopy images were used to evaluate particle size, particle shape and morphology. Bulk, tapped and true densities and flow properties of melibiose was measured. Particle size of the melibiose batches are quite different resulting causing differences in the flowability. Instrumented tableting machine and compression simulator were used to evaluate tableting properties of melbiose compared to α-lactose monohydrate. Heckel analysis and strain-rate sensitivity index were used to determine deformation mechanism of melibiose monohydrate in relation to α–lactose monohydrate during compaction. Melibiose seems to have similar deformation behaviour than α-lactose monohydrate. Melibiose is most likely fragmenting material. Melibiose has better compactibility than α – lactose monohydrate as it produces tablets with higher tensile strength with similar compression pressures. More compression studies are however needed to confirm these results because limitations of this study.

A systematic and mechanistic evaluation of aspartic acid as filler for directly compressed tablets containing trimethoprim and trimethoprim aspartate

The generally accepted paradigm of 'inert' and 'mono functional' excipient in dosage form has been recently challenged with the development of individual excipients capable of exhibiting multiple functions (e.g. binder-disintegrants, surfactant which affect P-gp function). The proposed study has been designed within the realm of multifunctionality and is the first and novel investigation towards evaluation of aspartic acid as a filler and disintegration enhancing agent for the delivery of biopharmaceutical class IV model drug trimethoprim. The study investigated powder characteristics using angle of repose, laser diffractometry and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The prepared tablets were characterised using Heckel analysis, disintegration time and tensile strength measurements. Although Heckel analysis revealed that both TMP and TMP aspartate salt have high elasticity, the salt form produced a stronger compact which was attributed to the formation of agglomerates. Aspartic acid was found to have high plasticity, but its incorporation into the formulations was found to have a negative impact on the compaction properties of TMP and its salt. Surface morphology investigations showed that mechanical interlocking plays a vital role in binding TMP crystals together during compaction, while the small particle size of TMP aspartate agglomerates was found to have significant impact on the tensile strength of the tablets. The study concluded that aspartic acid can be employed as filler and disintegrant and that compactability within tablets was independent of the surface charge of the excipients.

Excipient characterization and particle engineering to develop directly compressed orally disintegrating tablets

ODTs have emerged as a novel oral dosage form with a potential to deliver a wide range of drug candidates to paediatric and geriatric patients. Compression of excipients offers a costeffective and translatable methodology for the manufacture of ODTs. Though, technical challenges prevail such as difficulty to achieve suitable tablet mechanical strength while ensuring rapid disintegration in the mouth, poor compressibility of preferred ODT diluent Dmannitol, and limited use for modified drug-release. The work investigates excipients’ functionality in ODTs and proposes new methodologies for enhancing material characteristics via process and particle engineering. It also aims to expand ODT applications for modified drug-release. Preformulation and formulation studies employed a plethora of techniques/tests including AFM, SEM, DSC, XRD, TGA, HSM, FTIR, hardness, disintegration time, friability, stress/strain and Heckel analysis. Tableting of D-mannitol and cellulosic excipients utilised various compression forces, material concentrations and grades. Engineered D-mannitol particles were made by spray drying mannitol with pore former NH4HCO3. Coated microparticles of model API omeprazole were prepared using water-based film forming polymers. The results of nanoscopic investigations elucidated the compression profiles of ODT excipients. Strong densification of MCC (Py is 625 MPa) occurs due to conglomeration of physicomechanical factors whereas D-mannitol fragments under pressure leading to poor compacts. Addition of cellulosic excipients (L-HPC and HPMC) and granular mannitol to powder mannitol was required to mechanically strengthen the dosage form (hardness >60 N, friability <1%) and to maintain rapid disintegration (<30 sec). Similarly, functionality was integrated into D-mannitol by fabrication of porous, yet, resilient particles which resulted in upto 150% increase in the hardness of compacts. The formulated particles provided resistance to fracture under pressure due to inherent elasticity while promoted tablet disintegration (50-77% reduction in disintegration time) due to porous nature. Additionally, coated microparticles provided an ODT-appropriate modified-release coating strategy by preventing drug (omeprazole) release.

A holistic multi evidence approach to study the fragmentation behaviour of crystalline mannitol

Mannitol is an essential excipient employed in orally disintegrating tablets due to its high palatability. However its fundamental disadvantage is its fragmentation during direct compression, producing mechanically weak tablets. The primary aim of this study was to assess the fracture behaviour of crystalline mannitol in relation to the energy input during direct compression, utilising ball milling as the method of energy input, whilst assessing tablet characteristics of post-milled powders. Results indicated that crystalline mannitol fractured at the hydrophilic (011) plane, as observed through SEM, alongside a reduction in dispersive surface energy. Disintegration times of post-milled tablets were reduced due to the exposure of the hydrophilic plane, whilst more robust tablets were produced. This was shown through higher tablet hardness and increased plastic deformation profiles of the post-milled powders, as observed with a lower yield pressure through an out-of-die Heckel analysis. Evaluation of crystal state using x-ray diffraction/differential scanning calorimetry showed that mannitol predominantly retained the β-polymorph; however x-ray diffraction provided a novel method to calculate energy input into the powders during ball milling. It can be concluded that particle size reduction is a pragmatic strategy to overcome the current limitation of mannitol fragmentation and provide improvements in tablet properties.

Grewia gum 1:some mechanical and swelling properties of compact and film

Purpose: To study the mechanical and dynamic swelling properties of grewia gum, evaluate its compression behaviour and determine the effect of drying methods on its properties. Methods: Compacts (500 mg) of both freeze-dried and air-dried grewia gum were separately prepared by compression on a potassium bromide (KBr) press at different pressures and subjected to Heckel analysis. Swelling studies were performed using 200 mg compacts of the gum (freeze-dried or air-dried) compressed on a KBr press. The mechanical properties of the films of the gum prepared by casting 1 % dispersions of the gum were evaluated using Hounsfield tensiometer. The mechanical properties of grewia gum films were compared with films of pullulan and guar gum which were similarly prepared. The effect of temperature on the water uptake of the compacts was studied and the data subjected to Schott's analysis. Results: Drying conditions had no effect on the yield pressure of the gum compacts as both air-dried and freeze-dried fractions had a yield pressure of 322.6 MPa. The plots based on Schott's equation for the grewia gum samples showed that both samples (freeze-dried and air-dried) exhibited long swelling times. Grewia gum film had a tensile strength of 19.22±3.61 MPa which was similar to that of pullulan films (p > 0.05). It had an elastic modulus of 2.13±0.12 N/mm2 which was significantly lower (p < 0.05) than those of pullulan and guar gum with elastic moduli of 3.33±0.00 and 2.86±0.00 N/mm2, respectively. Conclusion: The type of drying method used does not have any effect on the degree of plasticity of grewia gum compacts. Grewia gum obtained by either drying method exhibited extended swelling duration. Matrix tablet formulations of the gum will likely swell slowly and promote sustained release of drug. © Pharmacotherapy Group, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Benin, Benin City.

Evaluation of seven European aerosol optical depth retrieval algorithms for climate analysis

Satellite data are increasingly used to provide observation-based estimates of the effects of aerosols on climate. The Aerosol-cci project, part of the European Space Agency's Climate Change Initiative (CCI), was designed to provide essential climate variables for aerosols from satellite data. Eight algorithms, developed for the retrieval of aerosol properties using data from AATSR (4), MERIS (3) and POLDER, were evaluated to determine their suitability for climate studies. The primary result from each of these algorithms is the aerosol optical depth (AOD) at several wavelengths, together with the Ångström exponent (AE) which describes the spectral variation of the AOD for a given wavelength pair. Other aerosol parameters which are possibly retrieved from satellite observations are not considered in this paper. The AOD and AE (AE only for Level 2) were evaluated against independent collocated observations from the ground-based AERONET sun photometer network and against “reference” satellite data provided by MODIS and MISR. Tools used for the evaluation were developed for daily products as produced by the retrieval with a spatial resolution of 10 × 10 km2 (Level 2) and daily or monthly aggregates (Level 3). These tools include statistics for L2 and L3 products compared with AERONET, as well as scoring based on spatial and temporal correlations. In this paper we describe their use in a round robin (RR) evaluation of four months of data, one month for each season in 2008. The amount of data was restricted to only four months because of the large effort made to improve the algorithms, and to evaluate the improvement and current status, before larger data sets will be processed. Evaluation criteria are discussed. Results presented show the current status of the European aerosol algorithms in comparison to both AERONET and MODIS and MISR data. The comparison leads to a preliminary conclusion that the scores are similar, including those for the references, but the coverage of AATSR needs to be enhanced and further improvements are possible for most algorithms. None of the algorithms, including the references, outperforms all others everywhere. AATSR data can be used for the retrieval of AOD and AE over land and ocean. PARASOL and one of the MERIS algorithms have been evaluated over ocean only and both algorithms provide good results.

Mitochondrial DNA analysis of field populations of Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera : Noctuidae) and of its relationship to H. zea

Background
Helicoverpa armigera and H. zea are amongst the most significant polyphagous pest lepidopteran species in the Old and New Worlds respectively. Separation of H. armigera and H. zea is difficult and is usually only achieved through morphological differences in the genitalia. They are capable of interbreeding to produce fertile offspring. The single species status of H. armigera has been doubted, due to its wide distribution and plant host range across the Old World. This study explores the global genetic diversity of H. armigera and its evolutionary relationship to H zea.

Results
We obtained partial (511 bp) mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) Cytochrome Oxidase-I (COI) sequences for 249 individuals of H. armigera sampled from Australia, Burkina Faso, Uganda, China, India and Pakistan which were associated with various host plants. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within the partial COI gene differentiated H. armigera populations into 33 mtDNA haplotypes. Shared haplotypes between continents, low F-statistic values and low nucleotide diversity between countries (0.0017 – 0.0038) suggests high mobility in this pest. Phylogenetic analysis of four major Helicoverpa pest species indicates that H. punctigera is basal to H. assulta, which is in turn basal to H. armigera and H. zea. Samples from North and South America suggest that H. zea is also a single species across its distribution. Our data reveal short genetic distances between H. armigera and H. zea which seem to have been established via a founder event from H. armigera stock at around 1.5 million years ago.

Conclusion
Our mitochondrial DNA sequence data supports the single species status of H. armigera across Africa, Asia and Australia. The evidence for inter-continental gene flow observed in this study is consistent with published evidence of the capacity of this species to migrate over long distances. The finding of high genetic similarity between Old World H. armigera and New World H. zea emphasises the need to consider work on both pests when building pest management strategies for either.

How calls from carers, friends and family members of someone affected by cancer differ from those made by people diagnosed with cancer; analysis of 4 years of South Australian Cancer Council Helpline data

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study is to determine how people diagnosed with cancer who call the Cancer Council Helpline in South Australia differ from carers/family/friends (caregivers) who call. METHOD: Descriptive, retrospective audit of calls from people who contacted Cancer Council Helpline in South Australia between 16 April 2009 and 16 April 2013 who were diagnosed with cancer (n = 5766) or were the caregivers (n = 5174) of a person with cancer. RESULTS: Caregivers were more likely to be female (p < 0.001); younger in age (p < 0.001); call regarding cancer that was metastasised/widespread/advanced, terminal or at an unknown stage (p < 0.001) and phone requesting general cancer information or emotional support (p < 0.001). This group was more distressed (p < 0.001) but less likely (p = 0.02) to be offered and/or accept referrals to counselling than people diagnosed with cancer who called. Follow-up care was required by 63.5 % of caregivers and 73.1 % of people with cancer according to distress management guidelines; 8.5 and 15.3 %, respectively, accepted referrals to internal services. The most frequently discussed topic for both groups was emotional/psychological concerns. There were no differences in remoteness of residence or call length between groups. CONCLUSIONS: Caregivers represented different demographic groups than people diagnosed with cancer who called this helpline. The two groups phoned for different issues, at different stages of disease progression, displayed different levels of distress and, therefore, may benefit from services being tailored to meet their unique needs. These results also demonstrate the capacity of helplines to complement other health services and confirm that callers to cancer helplines exhibit high levels of distress.

Description and prevalence of Thynnascaris sp. larvae Dollfus, 1933 (Nematoda: Anisakidae) in Plagioscion squamosissimus Heckel, 1840 from Volta Grande Reservoir, State of Minas Gerais, Brazil

O presente trabalho teve por objetivo o estudo da helmintofauna da corvina de água doce Plagioscion squamosissimus, do reservatório de Volta Grande, MG, Brasil. Foram colhidos 68 peixes com comprimento médio de 25,2 cm e peso médio de 180,9 g, com rede de espera, bimestralmente no período de dezembro de 1995 a dezembro de 1996. Os parasitos foram cuidadosamente retirados de seus cistos que estavam aderidos ao mesentério intestinal. Os espécimes foram fixados em AFA a 65°C e conservados em álcool 70°GL contendo 5% de glicerina. Após diafanização com ácido acético ou lactofenol de Amann, 21 nematóides foram desenhados em câmara clara. As larvas foram identificadas como Thynnascaris sp. (Nematoda: Anisakidae). Das 68 corvinas examinadas, 30 estavam infectadas por esses parasitos com uma prevalência de 44,1%. O número médio de parasitos por hospedeiro foi de 0 a 13,8 e a intensidade média, de 0 a 16. A análise estatística, de acordo com o Teste Exato de Fisher, mostrou que a sazonalidade foi dependente da pluviosidade e temperatura do ar.

Ecomorfologia trófica de Acarichthys heckelii (Müller & Troschel, 1849), Heros efasciatus Heckel, 1840 e Mesonauta insignis (Heckel, 1840) (Perciformes:Cichlidae) nas reservas de desenvolvimento sustentável de Amanã e Mamirauá, Amazônia

Os ciclídeos compõem uma das mais diversas famílias de peixes dulcícolas com 1.900 espécies. Espécies como A. heckelii, H. efasciatus e M. insignis são coletados das reservas de desenvolvimento sustentável de Amanã e Mamirauá de acordo com o projeto de manejo sustentável. Para investigar as variações entre as variáveis morfológicas associadas com a alimentação das espécies para as reservas Amanã e Mamirauá no médio Solimões, foi feita uma análise após eliminar o efeito do tamanho corporal. As três espécies formaram diferentes grupos por espécies, por grupos etários e por ambientes. Os principais caracteres para a formação dos grupos foram a largura da boca e comprimento da cabeça. Diferenças entre os juvenis e os adultos nos atributos área relativa do olho e razão-aspecto da nadadeira caudal foram significativas. A composição da dieta indicou que as três espécies estudadas apresentaram uma convergência alimentar por insetos em ambos os ambientes.

Avaliação da atividade gonadal de machos e fêmeas de pescada branca, Plagioscion squamosissimus (Heckel, 1840), (Pisces, Teleostei, Sciaenidae) no rio Pará (PA)

Fêmeas e machos adultos de P. squamosissimus (Pisces, Teleostei, Sciaenidae) foram coletados mensalmente no Rio Pará, que banha a ilha do Capim (PA) (S 010 34. 971`; W 0480 52.932`), durante o período de fevereiro de 2004 a fevereiro de 2005, correspondendo ao total de 234 espécimes. As gônadas foram coletadas, fixadas e processadas de acordo com os métodos usuais utilizados para processamento em parafina e análise em microscopia de luz. A espécie em estudo é uma das principais fontes de proteína animal para a população local, sendo capturada de forma intensa e ininterrupta ao longo do ano. Com base em informações dos pescadores locais, essa captura parece estar determinando uma aparente diminuição quantitativa e qualitativa em seus estoques locais. A espécie apresenta desova parcelada e o desenvolvimento gonadal foi caracterizado nos estádios de repouso, maturação, maduro e esvaziado ou semi-esvaziado. Gônadas maduras foram encontradas nos meses de dezembro, janeiro e julho. A análise de correlação entre o estádio gonadal maduro e a variação temporal da relação gonadossomática (ΔRGS) indica também a ocorrência de desova nos respectivos meses. Não obstante, as informações obtidas da correlação entre a ΔRGS e a média de oócitos maduros e percentual de espermatozóides por túbulo seminífero, respectivamente, também indicaram haver desova nos respectivos meses, sendo que aparentemente a espécie apresenta uma desova mais intensa ou desova principal entre os meses de dezembro e janeiro (inverno), e outra desova menos intensa ou secundária no mês de julho (verão). Com base no método da morfologia tubular, foram determinados oito estádios do ciclo do epitélio seminífero (CES), sendo que no estádio 1 os túbulos seminíferos são compostos por espermatogônias primárias e cistos de spermatogônias secundárias; o estádio 2 é composto por espermatogônias primárias e secundárias e cistos de espermatócitos; estádio 3 é caracterizado por espermatogônias primárias, secundárias, cistos de espermatócitos e de espermátides jovens ou recém-formadas; estádio 4 com túbulos seminíferos caracterizados pela presença de espermatogônias primárias e secundárias, espermatócitos e por cistos de espermátides jovens e tardias; estádio 5 apresenta todas as células anteriores e é marcado pelo surgimento de espermatozóides no lúmen tubular; estádio 6 tem como características a diminuição dos cistos de células germinativas e considerável aumento do número de espermatozóides no lúmen tubular; os túbulos seminíferos no estádio 7 contêm poucos cistos de células germinativas e se inicia o esvaziamento da massa de espermatozóides do lúmen tubular; estádio 8 é o último do CES e é caracterizado pela aparente desorganização dos cistos remanescentes de células germinativas no túbulo seminífero.

Caracterização e análise das comunidades e infracomunidades de parasitos metazoários de Plagioscion squamosissimus (Heckel, 1840) capturados no reservatório de Promissão, rio Tietê, estado de São Paulo

Pós-graduação em Medicina Veterinária - FCAV