Epidemiologia das infecções causadas por Staphylococcus aureus resistente a meticilina com perfil comunitário (CA-MRSA) em pacientes atendidos em um hospital terciário no Rio de Janeiro

O Staphylococcus aureus resistente a meticilina (MRSA) foi inicialmente descrito como um patógeno associado a infecções relacionadas à assistência em saúde; porém, um clone de MRSA, o CA-MRSA emergiu na comunidade e está atualmente incrementando nos hospitais. O objetivo desta tese foi descrever aspectos relacionados com a epidemiologia das infecções por cepas CA-MRSA no Hospital Universitário Pedro Ernesto da Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (HUPE/UERJ), avaliando especificamente fatores de risco relacionado com as infecções por CA-MRSA. Usando informações das bases de dados do laboratório de microbiologia, da farmácia e da Comissão para Controle da Infecção Hospitalar do HUPE/UERJ foi realizado um estudo retrospectivo de infecções/colonizações por cepas de S. aureus (fevereiro 2005 a Julho 2011). Foi realizado um estudo caso e controle, utilizando como casos os pacientes com infecções por cepas CA-MRSA. Na avaliação da susceptibilidade aos antimicrobianos usados em infecções graves por MRSA (vancomicina, teicoplanina, daptomicina e linezolida), foram determinadas as concentrações inibitórias mínimas (CIM) das amostras por diferentes metodologias (testes de difusão em agar, microdiluição em caldo e E-test). Nas analises das tendências temporais da apresentação dos subtipos de MRSA, usando um critério fenotípico para classificação das cepas MRSA, foi observada uma diminuição do número de cepas de MRSA multirresistente (HA-MRSA) (p<0.05). Também foi observada uma tendência ao aumento de cepas não-multirresistentes (CA-MRSA), mas sem alcançar a significância estatística (p = 0.06) igual que os S. aureus sensíveis a meticilina (MSSA) (p = 0.48). Não houve associação entre o subtipo de MRSA e a mortalidade devida à infecção por cepas MRSA. Uma idade acima de 70 anos (OR: 2.46, IC95%: 0.99 - 6.11), a presença de pneumonia adquirida no hospital (OR: 4.94, IC95%: 1.65 -14.8), a doença pulmonar obstrutiva crônica (OR: 6.09, IC95% 1.16 31.98) e a leucemia (OR: 8.2, IC95%: 1.25 54.7) foram fatores de risco associadas à mortalidade nas infecções por cepas de S. aureus. Usando curvas de Kaplan-Meier, foi observada uma tendência ao aumento da mortalidade em infecções causadas por MSSA na primeira semana, porém sem alcançar significância estatística (p = 0.07). Não foram observadas amostras MRSA com susceptibilidade intermediaria a vancomicina, linezolida, daptomicina ou teicoplanina. A dinâmica das infecções por S. aureus no HUPE/UERJ mudou durante o período de estudo, com menor número de episódios infecciosos causados por cepas de MRSA multirresistentes. Existe uma tendência ao aumento das cepas não-multirresistentes de MRSA entanto que a taxa de infecções por MSSA permaneceu estável no período do estudo. O perfil de resistência dos estafilococos não teve associação com a mortalidade

Staphylococcus aureus resistente à meticilina (MRSA): tipificação do cassete cromossômico SCCmec e resistência a antimicrobianos em pacientes com fibrose cística assistidos em dois centros no Rio de Janeiro

A infecção pulmonar de etiologia bacteriana é um dos principais problemas que levam a morbi-mortalidade na fibrose cística (FC). Staphylococcus aureus se destaca como um dos micro-organismos mais frequentes e com um agravante para a terapêutica quando se apresentam resistentes à oxacilina (MRSA). Amostras MRSA podem ser classificadas tanto genotipicamente quanto fenotipicamente em MRSA adquiridas na comunidade (CA-MRSA) ou adquiridas no hospital (HA-MRSA). Fenotipicamente, essa classificação é muito controversa, podendo se basear em critérios epidemiológicos ou ainda pelo perfil de susceptibilidade aos antimicrobianos. Por outro lado, a classificação genotípica consiste na determinação dos cassetes cromossômicos (SCCmec), local de inserção do gene mecA (que confere resistência a meticilina). Atualmente são reconhecidos 11 tipos de SCCmec, sendo os de tipo I ao III e VIII relacionados ao genótipo HA-MRSA e IV ao XI ao genótipo CA-MRSA. Classicamente CA-MRSA é capaz de produzir a toxina Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL), codificada pelos genes luk-S e luk-F que está associada à pneumonia necrotizante e infecções de tecidos moles em pacientes com FC com quadros de exacerbação pulmonar. No Brasil, raros são os trabalhos envolvendo caracterização de SCCmec em amostras de pacientes com FC. Diante disso, este estudo teve como objetivo principal a caracterização dos tipos de SCCmec e ainda a determinação do perfil de susceptibilidade a antimicrobianos em uma população de MRSA recuperada de pacientes com FC assistidos em dois centros de tratamento no Rio de Janeiro, Hospital Universitário Pedro Ernesto (HUPE) e Instituto Fernandes Figueira (IFF). Foram estudadas 108 amostras de MRSA isoladas do período de 2008 a 2010, sendo 94 oriundas de 28 pacientes adultos atendidos no IFF e 14 de 2 pacientes adultos atendidos no HUPE. Foram encontradas altas taxas de resistência para os antimicrobianos oxacilina, cefoxitina e eritromicina. Todas as amostras foram sensíveis à vancomicina e a linezolida quando determinada as Concentrações Inibitórias Mínimas (CIM). Através da técnica de PCR foi possível a tipificação dos SCCmec em 82,4% das amostras, sendo 64% destas compatíveis ao genótipo CA-MRSA. Não houve diferença estatística nas taxas de susceptibilidade aos antimicrobianos entre as amostras CA-MRSA e HA-MRSA. Foram encontrados os SCCmec dos tipos I, III, IV e V, sendo os tipos I e IV os mais frequentes. O gene que codifica a toxina PVL foi encontrado em 34,2% das amostras e foi observado em amostras CA-MRSA e HA-MRSA. Nosso estudo se destaca por apresentar um alto percentual de amostras CA-MRSA e ainda por ser o primeiro do país a detectar a presença do gene que codifica a toxina PVL em pacientes com FC. Além disso, de forma inédita na literatura, encontramos o gene luk-S, em amostras classificadas como HA-MRSA em pacientes com FC. Os poucos estudos nacionais, bem como as diferenças encontradas entre trabalhos, refletem a necessidade de conhecimento mais aprimorado do MRSA envolvido nas infecções pulmonares dos pacientes com FC.

Determinação do perfil fenotípico e genotípico de amostras de Staphylococus aureus resistentes à meticilina (MRSA) e sensíveis a antibióticos não ß-lactâmicos em cinco hospitais no município do Rio de Janeiro

Staphylococcus aureus resistente à meticilina (MRSA) é um dos principais microrganismos envolvidos nas Infecções relacionadas à Assistência à Saúde (IrAS). Porém, um clone de MRSA, o CA-MRSA, emergiu na comunidade e atualmente vem sendo agente de IrAS. O objetivo desta dissertação é avaliar fenotípica e genotipicamente 111 amostras de Staphylococcus aureus resistentes à meticilina e sensíveis a antibióticos não ß-lactâmicos de pacientes atendidos em cinco hospitais no município do Rio de Janeiro. Utilizando os critérios padronizados pelo CLSI 2012, foram determinadas as susceptibilidades a 11 antimicrobianos pelo método de disco difusão em ágar e concentração inibitória mínima para vancomicina e oxacilina pelo método da microdiluição em caldo. A multirresistência (resistência a 3 ou mais antimicrobianos não ß-lactâmicos) foi observada em 31,5% das amostras, sendo que 53,2% apresentaram resistência ao antimicrobiano clindamicina, uma das opções para o tratamento empírico das infecções de pele/tecidos moles. 86,4% apresentaram concentração inibitória mínima (CIM) para vancomicina ≥ 1,0 g/mL ou seja, elevado percentual de amostras associadas ao fenômeno MIC creep, o qual está associado ao insucesso na terapia antimicrobiana anti-MRSA. Não foi observado até o momento nenhuma amostra com CIM ≥ 4cg/mL para vancomicina, entretanto, já há resistência à linezolida em quatro hospitais do estudo. A tipificação do SCCmec nos permitiu classificar 4,5% das amostras em HA-MRSA e 86,5% em CA-MRSA, nas quais a resistência heterogênea típica à oxacilina foi observada em 57,2%. A toxina de Panton-Valentine (PVL) foi identificada pela metodologia de PCR em 28% das amostras com genótipo CA-MRSA. Os fatores de riscos clássicos, da literatura, relacionados à infecção por HA-MRSA foram também observados nos pacientes com infecção por CA-MRSA portadoras de SCCmec IV e V. No intuito de verificar a existência de similaridades genéticas ou a presença de clone predominante entre as amostras dos cinco hospitais, foi realizada a técnica de eletroforese em gel sob campo pulsado (PFGE) e observou-se diversidade genética assim como a presença de amostras com padrões similares aos clones OSPC (18,5%) e USA400. Não foram encontradas amostras com padrões de eletroforese similares aos clones USA300, USA800 e CEB. É essencial a vigilância da resistência aos antimicrobianos não ß-lactâmicos no CA-MRSA, em especial à vancomicina. A mudança na epidemiologia deste microrganismo vem impactando os padrões característicos dos genótipos limitando os critérios de diferenciação entre eles. Neste contexto, as técnicas moleculares atuam como excelentes ferramentas de caracterização. O conhecimento do patógeno auxilia na elaboração e implementação de medidas preventivas, contribuindo para o controle da doença tanto no ambiente hospitalar quanto na comunidade.

Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) - genotyping of Community Acquired Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus, including the subtyping of PVL toxin producers using Real-Time PCR

Staphylococcus aureus is a common pathogen that causes a variety of infections including soft tissue infections, impetigo, septicemia toxic shock and scalded skin syndrome. Traditionally, Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) was considered a Hospital-Acquired (HA) infection. It is now recognised that the frequency of infections with MRSA is increasing in the community, and that these infections are not originating from hospital environments. A 2007 report by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) stated that Staphylococcus aureus is the most important cause of serious and fatal infections in the USA. Community-Acquired MRSA (CA-MRSA) are genetically diverse and distinct, meaning they are able to be identified and tracked by way of genotyping. Genotyping of MRSA using Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) is a rapid and robust method for monitoring MRSA, specifically ST93 (Queensland Clone) dissemination in the community. It has been shown that a large proportion of CA-MRSA infections in Queensland and New South Wales are caused by ST93. The rationale for this project was that SNP analysis of MLST genes is a rapid and cost-effective method for genotyping and monitoring MRSA dissemination in the community. In this study, 16 different sequence types (ST) were identified with 41% of isolates identified as ST93 making it the predominate clone. Males and Females were infected equally with an average patient age of 45yrs. Phenotypically, all of the ST93 had an identical antimicrobial resistance pattern. They were resistant to the β-lactams – Penicillin, Flu(di)cloxacillin and Cephalothin but sensitive to all other antibiotics tested. Virulence factors play an important role in allowing S. aureus to cause disease by way of colonising, replication and damage to the host. One virulence factor of particular interest is the toxin Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL), which is composed of two separate proteins encoded by two adjacent genes. PVL positive CA-MRSA are shown to cause recurrent, chronic or severe skin and soft tissue infections. As a result, it is important that PVL positive CA-MRSA is genotyped and tracked. Especially now that CA-MRSA infections are more prevalent than HA-MRSA infections and are now deemed endemic in Australia. 98% of all isolates in this study tested positive for the PVL toxin gene. This study showed that PVL is present in many different community based ST, not just ST93, which were all PVL positive. With this toxin becoming entrenched in CA-MRSA, genotyping would provide more accurate data and a way of tracking the dissemination. PVL gene can be sub-typed using an allele-specific Real-Time PCR (RT-PCR) followed by High resolution meltanalysis. This allows the identification of PVL subtypes within the CA-MRSA population and allow the tracking of these clones in the community.

Clonal complexes and virulence factors of Staphylococcus aureus from several cities in India

Background: Diseases from Staphylococcus aureus are a major problem in Indian hospitals and recent studies point to infiltration of community associated methicillin resistant S. aureus (CA-MRSA) into hospitals. Although CA-MRSA are genetically different from nosocomial MRSA, the distinction between the two groups is blurring as CA-MRSA are showing multidrug resistance and are endemic in many hospitals. Our survey of samples collected from Indian hospitals between 2004 and 2006 had shown mainly hospital associated methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (HA-MRSA) carrying staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec) type III and IIIA. But S. aureus isolates collected from 2007 onwards from community and hospital settings in India have shown SCCmec type IV and V cassettes while several variations of type IV SCCmec cassettes from IVa to IVj have been found in other parts of the world. In the present study, we have collected nasal swabs from rural and urban healthy carriers and pus, blood etc from in patients from hospitals to study the distribution of SCCmec elements and sequence types (STs) in the community and hospital environment. We performed molecular characterization of all the isolates to determine their lineage and microarray of select isolates from each sequence type to analyze their toxins, virulence and immune-evasion factors. Results: Molecular analyses of 68 S. aureus isolates from in and around Bengaluru and three other Indian cities have been carried out. The chosen isolates fall into fifteen STs with all major clonal complexes (CC) present along with some minor ones. The dominant MRSA clones are ST22 and ST772 among healthy carriers and patients. We are reporting three novel clones, two methicillin sensitive S. aureus (MSSA) isolates belonging to ST291 (related to ST398 which is live stock associated), and two MRSA clones, ST1208 (CC8), and ST672 as emerging clones in this study for the first time. Sixty nine percent of isolates carry Panton-Valentine Leucocidin genes (PVL) along with many other toxins. There is more diversity of STs among methicillin sensitive S. aureus than resistant ones. Microarray analysis of isolates belonging to different STs gives an insight into major toxins, virulence factors, adhesion and immune evasion factors present among the isolates in various parts of India. Conclusions: S. aureus isolates reported in this study belong to a highly diverse group of STs and CC and we are reporting several new STs which have not been reported earlier along with factors influencing virulence and host pathogen interactions.

Determinação da virulência e da resistência antimicrobiana em Staphylococcus spp. isolados de pacientes do Serviço de Dermatologia do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu, SP

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

Description and critical appraisal of principal components analysis (PCA) methodology applied to pulsed-field gel electrophoresis profiles of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates

Principal components analysis (PCA) has been described for over 50 years; however, it is rarely applied to the analysis of epidemiological data. In this study PCA was critically appraised in its ability to reveal relationships between pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) profiles of methicillin- resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in comparison to the more commonly employed cluster analysis and representation by dendrograms. The PFGE type following SmaI chromosomal digest was determined for 44 multidrug-resistant hospital-acquired methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MR-HA-MRSA) isolates, two multidrug-resistant community-acquired MRSA (MR-CA-MRSA), 50 hospital-acquired MRSA (HA-MRSA) isolates (from the University Hospital Birmingham, NHS Trust, UK) and 34 community-acquired MRSA (CA-MRSA) isolates (from general practitioners in Birmingham, UK). Strain relatedness was determined using Dice band-matching with UPGMA clustering and PCA. The results indicated that PCA revealed relationships between MRSA strains, which were more strongly correlated with known epidemiology, most likely because, unlike cluster analysis, PCA does not have the constraint of generating a hierarchic classification. In addition, PCA provides the opportunity for further analysis to identify key polymorphic bands within complex genotypic profiles, which is not always possible with dendrograms. Here we provide a detailed description of a PCA method for the analysis of PFGE profiles to complement further the epidemiological study of infectious disease. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Molecular analysis of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus reveals an absence of plasmid DNA in multidrug-resistant isolates

The number, diversity and restriction enzyme fragmentation patterns of plasmids harboured by 44 multidrug-resistant hospital-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MR-HA-MRSA) isolates, two multidrug-resistant community-acquired MRSA (MR-CA-MRSA), 50 hospital-acquired MRSA (HA-MRSA) isolates (from the University Hospital Birmingham, NHS Trust, UK) and 34 community-acquired MRSA (CA-MRSA) isolates (from general practitioners in Birmingham, UK) were compared. In addition, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) type following SmaI chromosomal digest and SCCmec element type assignment were ascertained for each isolate. All MR-HA-MRSA and MR-CA-MRSA isolates possessed the type II SCCmec, harboured no plasmid DNA and belonged to one of five PFGE types. Forty-three out of 50 HA-MRSA isolates and all 34 CA-MRSA isolates possessed the type IV SCCmec and all but 10 of the type IV HA-MRSA isolates and nine CA-MRSA isolates carried one or two plasmids. The 19 non-multidrug-resistant isolates (NMR) that did not harbour plasmids were only resistant to methicillin whereas all the NMR isolates harbouring at least one plasmid were resistant to at least one additional antibiotic. We conclude that although plasmid carriage plays an important role in antibiotic resistance, especially in NMR-HA-MRSA and CA-MRSA, the multidrug resistance phenotype from HA-MRSA is not associated with increased plasmid carriage and indeed is characterised by an absence of plasmid DNA. © 2005 Federation of European Microbiological Societies. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Molekulare Epidemiologie von MRSA-Patienten-Isolaten

MRSA ist der wohl bekannteste nosokomiale Infektionserreger weltweit. Die aktuelle Situation ist aufgrund der schnellen Ausbreitung, vor allem von caMRSA, in einigen Ländern besorgniserregend. Für den Raum Mainz konnte innerhalb der fünf Untersuchungsjahre eine stabile Populationsstruktur nachgewiesen werden, welche hauptsächlich aus deutschlandweit bekannten Epidemiestämmen gebildet wird. Als Besonderheit ergab sich die Dominanz des spa-Typs t003 (> 70 %), sowie das Vorherrschen hoch klonaler Strukturen an UMM und KKM. Diese Umstände lassen auf eine weite Verbreitung von MRSA, speziell des spa-Typs t003, innerhalb der Bevölkerung schließen. Die Bestätigung dieser Vermutung bedarf jedoch weiterer prospektiver Forschung außerhalb der Kliniken.rnAn der UMM konnte im Untersuchungszeitraum 2004-2008 keine Zunahme von klassischen PVL-positiven caMRSA (t008, t019 und t044) festgestellt werden, womit zumindest momentan noch keine Verdrängung von haMRSA durch caMRSA belegt werden konnte.rnDie von WITTE et al. (2004) postulierte 5 % Grenze für den häufigsten detektierten Typ einer Typisierungsmethode muss dahingehend modifiziert werden, dass diese Bedingung zwar allgemein für ein Typisierungsverfahren, nicht aber für lokale Populationen gelten sollte. Im Falle des Vorherrschens klonaler Linien und Subtypen würde keine Methode ausreichend diskriminatorische Eigenschaften aufweisen.rnDie Kombination von spa-Typisierung und PFGE konnte, mit Einschränkungen für den vorherrschenden t003, als geeignet im Falle der Keimdifferenzierung während eines Ausbruchs befunden werden. Als vorteilig für die Interpretation würde sich die Einführung eines generellen MRSA-Screenings für jeden Patienten bei Aufnahme auswirken.rnDie Überprüfung der Thesen von FRÉNAY et al. 1994 ergab keinen Zusammenhang zwischen einer X-Region ≥ 8 Repeats und einem erhöhtem Virulenzpotential. Bezüglich des gesteigerten epidemischen Potentials wurde festgestellt, dass lange X-Regionen generell häufiger auftreten als kurze und somit ein begünstigender Einfluss bei der Kolonisation vermutet aber nicht bewiesen werden kann.rnFür die Detektion von klassischen caMRSA konnte ein Ablaufschema mit Interpretationsrichtlinien erarbeitet werden, welches eine korrekte Differenzierung auch ohne die Einbeziehung patientenbezogener Daten ermöglicht. Die Anlage einer lokalen PFGE-Datenbank zeigte sich dabei als unbedingt notwendig um strittige Fälle als ha- oder caMRSA einzuordnen.rn

Chi viaggia ha delle storie da raccontare : those who travel have stories to tell

This review article uses the work of Italian scholar Milly Buonanno to review the state and future of television scholarship, given that the ‘age of television’ has been overtaken by the age of computer-based media. In particular, it discusses the role of open-ended narrative through which we collectively explore the human condition.

Diversity of community acquired MRSA carrying the PVL gene in Queensland and New South Wales, Australia

Emergence and dissemination of community acquired methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA) strains are being reported with increasing frequency in Australia and worldwide. These strains of CA-MRSA are genetically diverse and distinct in Australia. Genotyping of CA-MRSA using eight highly-discriminatory single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) is a rapid and robust method for monitoring the dissemination of these strains in the community. In this study, a SNP genotyping method was used to investigate the molecular epidemiology of 249 community acquired non-multiresistant MRSA (nm-MRSA) isolates over a 12-month period from routine diagnostic specimens. A real-time PCR for the presence of Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL) was also performed on these isolates. The CA-MRSA isolates were sourced from a large private laboratory in Brisbane, Australia that serves a wide geographic region encompassing Queensland and Northern New South Wales. This study identified 16 different STs and 98% of the CA-MRSA isolates were positive for the PVL gene. The most common ST was ST93 with 41% of isolates testing positive for this clone.

Comparing the cost-effectiveness of MRSA control strategies between ICU and non-ICU settings

Introduction / objectives Many strategies are used to control MRSA in hospitals. Only a few have been assessed in clinical trials and it is not obvious how findings should be generalised between settings. Uncertainty remains about which strategies represent the most appropriate use of scarce resources. We assess the cost-effectiveness of alternative MRSA screening and infection control strategies in England and Wales and discuss international relevance. Methods Models of MRSA transmission in ICUs and general medical (GM) wards were developed and used to evaluate different screening methods combined with decolonisation or isolation. Strategies were compared in terms of costs and health benefits (quality adjusted life years, QALYs). Different prevalences, proportions of high risk patients and ward sizes were investigated, and probabilistic sensitivity analyses (PSA) conducted. Results Decolonisation strategies were cost-saving in ICUs at a 5% admission prevalence, with admission and weekly PCR screening the most cost-effective (£3,929/QALY). In ICUs, screening and isolation reduced infection rates by ~10%. With admission prevalence ≤5%, targeting screening and isolation to high risk patients was optimal. In GM wards decolonisation and isolation strategies, though able to reduce MRSA infection rates up to ~50%, were not cost-effective. Conclusion The largest reductions in MRSA infection were achieved by screening and decolonisation strategies, and were cost-effective in ICU settings. In comparison, there is limited potential for screening and control strategies to be cost-effective in GM wards due to lower infection and mortality rates.

Replacement of healthcare-associated MRSA by community-associated MRSA in Queensland : confirmation by genotyping

Objective To describe the changing prevalence of healthcare- and community-associated MRSA. Methods Susceptibility phenotypes of MRSA were observed from 2000 to 2012 using routine susceptibility data. Phenotypic definitions of major clones were validated by genotyping isolates from a nested period prevalence survey in 2011. Results The predominant healthcare-associated (AUS-2/3 like) MRSA phenotype decreased from 42 to 14 isolates per million occasions of service in outpatients (P < 0.0001) and from 650 to 75 isolates per million accrued patient days in inpatients (P 0.0005), while the respective rates of the healthcare-related EMRSA-15 like phenotype increased from 1 to 19 in outpatients (P < 0.0001) and from 11 to 83 in inpatients (P < 0.0001) and those of the community-associated MRSA phenotype increased from 17 to 296 in outpatients (P < 0.0001) and from 71 to 486 in inpatients (P < 0.0001). When compared with single nucleotide polymorphism genotyping the AUS-2/3 like phenotype had a sensitivity and positive predictive value (PPV) for CC239 of 1 and 0.791 respectively, while the EMRSA-15 like phenotype had a sensitivity and PPV for CC22 of 0.903 and 0.774. PVL-positive CA-MRSA, predominantly ST93 and CC30, accounted for 60.8% of MRSA, while PVL-negative CA-MRSA, mainly CC5 and CC1, accounted for 21.4%. Conclusions The initially dominant healthcare-associated MRSA clone has been progressively replaced, mainly by four community-associated lineages.

Typing early Australian healthcare-associated MRSA : confirmation of major clones and emergence of ST1-MRSA-IV and novel ST2249-MRSA-III

AIMS: To investigate the evolutionary origins of Australian healthcare-associated (HCA) methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strains from a panel of historical isolates typed using current genotyping techniques. METHODS: Nineteen MRSA isolates from 1965 to 1981 were examined and antibiotic susceptibility profiles determined. Genetic characterisation included real-time (RT) polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays to identify single nucleotide polymorhpism (SNP) clonal complexes (SNP CC) and sequence type (SNP ST), multi locus sequence typing (MLST) and staphylococcal chromosomal cassette mec typing. RESULTS: All SNP CC30 isolates belonged to a novel sequence type, ST2249. All SNP CC239 isolates were confirmed as ST239-MRSA-III, except for a new single locus variant of ST239, ST2275. A further new type, ST2276, was identified. CONCLUSIONS: The earliest MRSA examined from 1965 was confirmed as ST250-MRSA-I, consistent with archaic European types. Identification of ST1-MRSA-IV in 1981 is the earliest appearance of this clinically important lineage which manifested in Australia and the United States in the 1990s. A previously unknown multi-resistant clone, ST2249-MRSA-III, was identified from 1973. Gentamicin resistance first appeared in this novel strain from 1976 and not ST239 as previously suspected. Thus, ST2249 was present in the earliest phase of the HCA MRSA epidemic in eastern Australia and was perhaps related to the emergence of the globally epidemic strain ST239.