Cholesterol regulates Syntaxin 6 trafficking at trans-Golgi network endosomal boundaries.

Inhibition of cholesterol export from late endosomes causes cellular cholesterol imbalance, including cholesterol depletion in the trans-Golgi network (TGN). Here, using Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) Niemann-Pick type C1 (NPC1) mutant cell lines and human NPC1 mutant fibroblasts, we show that altered cholesterol levels at the TGN/endosome boundaries trigger Syntaxin 6 (Stx6) accumulation into VAMP3, transferrin, and Rab11-positive recycling endosomes (REs). This increases Stx6/VAMP3 interaction and interferes with the recycling of αVβ3 and α5β1 integrins and cell migration, possibly in a Stx6-dependent manner. In NPC1 mutant cells, restoration of cholesterol levels in the TGN, but not inhibition of VAMP3, restores the steady-state localization of Stx6 in the TGN. Furthermore, elevation of RE cholesterol is associated with increased amounts of Stx6 in RE. Hence, the fine-tuning of cholesterol levels at the TGN-RE boundaries together with a subset of cholesterol-sensitive SNARE proteins may play a regulatory role in cell migration and invasion.

Golgi proteomics : Identification of a novel cartilage-specific Golgi protein GoPro49

The Golgi complex is a central organelle of the secretory pathway, responsible for a range of post-translational modifications, as well as for membrane traffic to the plasma membrane and to the endosomal-lysosomal pathway. In addition, this organelle has roles in cell migration, in the regulation of traffic, and as a mitotic check point. The structure of the Golgi complex is highly dynamic and able to respond to the amount of cargo being transported and the stage of the cell cycle. The Golgi proteome reflects the functions and structure of this organelle, and can be divided into three major groups: the Golgi resident proteins (e.g. modification enzymes), the Golgi matrix proteins (involved in structure and tethering events), and trafficking proteins (e.g. vesicle coat proteins and Rabs). The Golgi proteome has been studied on several occasions, from both rat liver and mammary gland Golgi membranes using proteomic approaches, but still little more than half of the estimated Golgi proteome is known. Nevertheless, methodological improvements and introduction of shotgun proteomics have increased the number of identified proteins, and especially the number of identified transmembrane proteins. Cartilage, even though not a typical tissue in which to study membrane traffic, secretes large amounts of extracellular matrix proteins that are extensively modified, especially by amino acid hydroxylation, glycosylation and sulfation. Furthermore, the cartilage ECM contains several, large oligomeric proteins (such as collagen II) that are difficult to assemble and transport. Indeed, cartilage has been shown to be susceptible to changes both in secretory pathway (e.g. the COPII coat assembly) and in post-translational modifications (e.g. heparan sulfate formation). Dental follicle, and the periodontal ligament (PDL) that it forms, are another type of connective tissue, and they have a role in anchoring teeth to bone. This anchorage is achieved by numerous matrix fibres that connect the bone matrix with the cementum. These tissues have in common the secretion of large matrix molecules. In this study the Golgi proteome was analysed from purified, stacked Golgi membranes isolated from rat liver. The identified, extensive proteome included a protein similar to Ab2-095, or Golgi protein 49kDa (GoPro49), which was shown to localise to the Golgi complex as an EGFP fusion protein. Surprisingly, in situ hybridisation showed the GoPro49 expression to be highly restricted to different mesenchymal tissues, especially in cartilage, and this expression pattern was clearly developmentally regulated. In addition to cartilage, GoPro49 was also expressed in the dental follicle, but was not observed in the mature PDL. Importantly, GoPro49 is the first specific marker for the dental follicle. Endogenous GoPro49 protein co-localised with β-COP in both chondrosarcoma and primary dental follicle cell lines. The COPI staining in these cells was highly dynamic, showing a number of tubules. This may reflect the type of secretory cargo they secrete. Currently GoPro49 is the only Golgi protein with such a restricted expression pattern.

Morphogenesis of Mammalian Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Apparatus throughout the Cell Cycle

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and the Golgi apparatus are organelles that produce, modify and transport proteins and lipids and regulate Ca2+ environment within cells. Structurally they are composed of sheets and tubules. Sheets may take various forms: intact, fenestrated, single or stacked. The ER, including the nuclear envelope, is a single continuous network, while the Golgi shows only some level of connectivity. It is often unclear, how different morphologies correspond to particular functions. Previous studies indicate that the structures of the ER and Golgi are dynamic and regulated by fusion and fission events, cytoskeleton, rate of protein synthesis and secretion, and specific structural proteins. For example, many structural proteins shaping tubular ER have been identified, but sheet formation is much more unclear. In this study, we used light and electron microscopy to study morphological changes of the ER and Golgi in mammalian cells. The proportion, type, location and dynamics of ER sheets and tubules were found to vary in a cell type or cell cycle stage dependent manner. During interphase, ER and Golgi structures were demonstrated to be regulated by p37, a cofactor of the fusion factor p97, and microtubules, which also affected the localization of the organelles. Like previously shown for the Golgi, the ER displayed a tendency for fenestration and tubulation during mitosis. However, this shape change did not result in ER fragmentation as happens to Golgi, but a continuous network was retained. The activity of p97/p37 was found to be important for the reassembly of both organelles after mitosis. In EM images, ER sheet membranes appear rough, since they contain attached ribosomes, whereas tubular membranes appear smooth. Our studies revealed that structural changes of the ER towards fenestrated and tubular direction correlate with loss of ER-bound ribosomes and vice versa. High and low curvature ER membranes have a low and high density of ribosomes, respectively. To conclude, both ER and Golgi architecture depend on fusion activity of p97/p37. ER morphogenesis, particularly of the sheet shape, is intimately linked to the density of membrane bound ribosomes.

Besnoitia besnoiti and Toxoplasma gondii: two apicomplexan strategies to manipulate the host cell centrosome and Golgi apparatus

Besnoitia besnoiti and Toxoplasma gondii are two closely related parasites that interact with the host cell microtubule cytoskeleton during host cell invasion. Here we studied the relationship between the ability of these parasites to invade and to recruit the host cell centrosome and the Golgi apparatus. We observed that T. gondii recruits the host cell centrosome towards the parasitophorous vacuole (PV), whereas B. besnoiti does not. Notably, both parasites recruit the host Golgi apparatus to the PV but its organization is affected in different ways. We also investigated the impact of depleting and over-expressing the host centrosomal protein TBCCD1, involved in centrosome positioning and Golgi apparatus integrity, on the ability of these parasites to invade and replicate. Toxoplasma gondii replication rate decreases in cells over-expressing TBCCD1 but not in TBCCD1-depleted cells; while for B. besnoiti no differences were found. However, B. besnoiti promotes a reorganization of the Golgi ribbon previously fragmented by TBCCD1 depletion. These results suggest that successful establishment of PVs in the host cell requires modulation of the Golgi apparatus which probably involves modifications in microtubule cytoskeleton organization and dynamics. These differences in how T. gondii and B. besnoiti interact with their host cells may indicate different evolutionary paths.

Plasmodium falciparum possesses two GRASP proteins that are differentially targeted to the Golgi complex via a higher- and lower-eukaryote-like mechanism

Plasmodium falciparum, the causative agent of malaria, relies on a complex protein-secretion system for protein targeting into numerous subcellular destinations. Recently, a homologue of the Golgi re-assembly stacking protein (GRASP) was identified and used to characterise the Golgi organisation in this parasite. Here, we report on the presence of a splice variant that leads to the expression of a GRASP isoform. Although the first GRASP protein (GRASP1) relies on a well-conserved myristoylation motif, the variant (GRASP2) displays a different N-terminus, similar to GRASPs found in fungi. Phylogenetic analyses between GRASP proteins of numerous taxa point to an independent evolution of the unusual N-terminus that could reflect unique requirements for Golgi-dependent protein sorting and organelle biogenesis in P. falciparum. Golgi association of GRASP2 depends on the hydrophobic N-terminus that resembles a signal anchor, leading to a unique mode of Golgi targeting and membrane attachment.

Untersuchung von Morphologie, Enzymverteilungen und Transportdynamik des Golgi-Apparates lebender Säugerzellen mittels hochauflösender MMM-4Pi-Mikroskopie in zwei Farben

Seit der Entdeckung des Golgi-Apparates im Jahre 1898 wurden seine Struktur, seine enzymatische Zusammensetzung und die Dynamik des in ihm stattfindenden Proteintransports intensiv untersucht. Dennoch blieben bis heute wesentliche Fragen zu seiner Funktionsweise unbeantwortet. So existieren nach wie vor mehrer konkurrierende Modelle zur Organisation der hoch komplexen räumlichen Verteilung seiner Enzyme sowie zum grundlegenden Mechanismus des Intra-Golgi Transports. Die Beantwortung dieser und weiterer Fragen ist für das Verständnis des Golgi-Apparates essentiell, aber aus methodischen Gründen höchst schwierig, da es bisher nicht möglich war die Struktur und Dynamik des Golgi-Apparates lebender Zellen mit der hierfür notwendigen Auflösung und Geschwindigkeit zu untersuchen. Bis heute gibt es für die funktionsmorphologischen Untersuchungen des Golgi-Apparates lebender Zellen keine echte Alternative zur Fernfeld- Fluoreszenzmikroskopie. Das MMM-4Pi-Mikroskop ermöglicht als erstes Fluoreszenzmikroskop, aufgrund seiner Auflösung von ~200 nm in der Fokalebene und 100-150 nm entlang der optischen Achse, die Untersuchung der Subkompartimente des Golgi-Apparates und kann, aufgrund seiner hohen Aufnahmegeschwindigkeit von 0.5 Hz, die Dynamik des Intra-Golgi Transports zeitlich auflösen. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es daher, den Golgi-Apparate lebender Zellen in zwei Farben sowie mit einer bisher nicht möglichen räumlichen und zeitlichen Auflösung zu untersuchen. Um die Leistungsfähigkeit der dreidimensionalen Bildgebung dieser Methode zu überprüfen, wurde erstmals der Golgi-Apparat fixierter Säugerzellen korrelativ mit dem Transmissionselektronenmikroskop und dem MMM-4Pi-Mikroskop aufgenommen. Die rekonstruierten Strukturen korrelierten in allen drei Raumrichtungen zu über 80%, was die Validität beider Methoden eindrucksvoll unter Beweis stellt. Zudem konnten mit dem MMM-4Pi-Mikroskop Aussackungen von Golgi-Cisternen aufgelöst werden, was die Eignung dieser Methode zur strukturellen Analyse der Subkompartimente des Golgi-Apparates unterstreicht. Des Weiteren wurde, in einer Reihe zweifarbiger Aufnahmeserien, die Verteilung dreier Golgi-Enzyme in lebenden Säugerzellen untersucht, und ihre mittlere relative Distanz bestimmt. Ihre aus der Literatur bekannten Lokalisationen konnten in zwei Fällen bestätigt (GalT, MannII) und in einem Fall korrigiert werden (2-OST). Im Gegensatz zu der konfokal bestimmten Cis-/Mid-Lokalisation von 2-OST zeigen die Ergebnisse der hoch aufgelösten Distanzanalyse deutlich, dass eine Mid-/Trans-Lokalisation vorliegt. Dieses Ergebnis wurde elektronenmikroskopisch überprüft und bestätigt. Da die räumliche Anordnung der Golgi-Enzyme die Reihenfolge ihrer Akitvität wiederspiegelt, ist eine möglichst präzise Bestimmung ihrer Konzentrationsverteilungen essentiell, um die Funktion des Golgi-Apparates zu verstehen. Insbesondere zeigt dieses Resultat, dass die Bestimmung der Lokalisation von Golgi-Enzymen über konfokale Kolokalisationsstudien zu falschen Ergebnissen führen kann. Die Kombination hoher räumlicher Auflösung mit einer schnellen Datenaufnahme erlaubte die Analyse der Transportdynamik innerhalb des Golgi-Apparates von Säugerzellen. In mehreren Zeitserien zweifarbiger Aufnahmen wurde der Transport des Frachtproteins VSVG relativ zum Trans-Golgi-Marker GalT untersucht. Dabei zeigte sich, dass das Trans-Golgi-Kompartiment in einigen Fällen durch eine deutliche Formänderung auf die Ankunft eines VSVG-Transportpulses reagierte und sich insgesamt wesentlich dynamischer verhielt als der Transportpuls selbst. Diese Beobachtung bestätigt tendenziell Transportmodelle, die den Golgi-Apparat nicht als statisches, sondern als dynamisches, aktiv am Transport beteiligtes Organell beschreiben. Die hier vorgestellten Experimente stellen die ersten Untersuchungen zur Verteilung von Golgi-Enzymen sowie zur Transportdynamik des Golgi-Apparates lebender Zellen mit einer dreidimensionalen Auflösung im Bereich von 100-200 nm dar. Wie am Beispiel von 2 OST gezeigt, ist es mit dem MMM-4Pi-Mikroskop allgemein möglich, die Lokalisation von Golgi-Enzymen wesentlich präziser als bisher zu bestimmen. Bei der Untersuchung dynamischer Prozesse ist in naher Zukunft eine Steigerung der Leistungsfähigkeit der Methode zu erwarten. Zum einen werden CCD-Kameras mit kürzeren Auslesezeiten und einer elektronischen Verstärkung des Signals die Datenaufnahme weiter beschleunigen. Zum anderen könnte durch die Entwicklung eines parallelisierten Mikroskops mit Einphotonen-Anregung das Bleichen konsekutiver Aufnahmen verringert werden, wodurch längere Aufnahmeserien möglich sein werden.

BPAG1a and b Associate with EB1 and EB3 and Modulate Vesicular Transport, Golgi Apparatus Structure, and Cell Migration in C2.7 Myoblasts.

BPAG1a and BPAG1b (BPAG1a/b) constitute two major isoforms encoded by the dystonin (Dst) gene and show homology with MACF1a and MACF1b. These proteins are members of the plakin family, giant multi-modular proteins able to connect the intermediate filament, microtubule and microfilament cytoskeletal networks with each other and to distinct cell membrane sites. They also serve as scaffolds for signaling proteins that modulate cytoskeletal dynamics. To gain better insights into the functions of BPAG1a/b, we further characterized their C-terminal region important for their interaction with microtubules and assessed the role of these isoforms in the cytoskeletal organization of C2.7 myoblast cells. Our results show that alternative splicing does not only occur at the 5' end of Dst and Macf1 pre-mRNAs, as previously reported, but also at their 3' end, resulting in expression of additional four mRNA variants of BPAG1 and MACF1. These isoform-specific C-tails were able to bundle microtubules and bound to both EB1 and EB3, two microtubule plus end proteins. In the C2.7 cell line, knockdown of BPAG1a/b had no major effect on the organization of the microtubule and microfilament networks, but negatively affected endocytosis and maintenance of the Golgi apparatus structure, which became dispersed. Finally, knockdown of BPAG1a/b caused a specific decrease in the directness of cell migration, but did not impair initial cell adhesion. These data provide novel insights into the complexity of alternative splicing of Dst pre-mRNAs and into the role of BPAG1a/b in vesicular transport, Golgi apparatus structure as well as in migration in C2.7 myoblasts.

Trypanosoma brucei Bloodstream Forms Depend upon Uptake of myo-Inositol for Golgi Complex Phosphatidylinositol Synthesis and Normal Cell Growth

myo-Inositol is a building block for all inositol-containing phospholipids in eukaryotes. It can be synthesized de novo from glucose-6-phosphate in the cytosol and endoplasmic reticulum. Alternatively, it can be taken up from the environment via Na(+)- or H(+)-linked myo-inositol transporters. While Na(+)-coupled myo-inositol transporters are found exclusively in the plasma membrane, H(+)-linked myo-inositol transporters are detected in intracellular organelles. In Trypanosoma brucei, the causative agent of human African sleeping sickness, myo-inositol metabolism is compartmentalized. De novo-synthesized myo-inositol is used for glycosylphosphatidylinositol production in the endoplasmic reticulum, whereas the myo-inositol taken up from the environment is used for bulk phosphatidylinositol synthesis in the Golgi complex. We now provide evidence that the Golgi complex-localized T. brucei H(+)-linked myo-inositol transporter (TbHMIT) is essential in bloodstream-form T. brucei. Downregulation of TbHMIT expression by RNA interference blocked phosphatidylinositol production and inhibited growth of parasites in culture. Characterization of the transporter in a heterologous expression system demonstrated a remarkable selectivity of TbHMIT for myo-inositol. It tolerates only a single modification on the inositol ring, such as the removal of a hydroxyl group or the inversion of stereochemistry at a single hydroxyl group relative to myo-inositol.

Syntaxin 6- and microtubule- mediated intracellular trafficking contributes to Golgi and nuclear translocation of EGFR

Receptor-mediated endocytosis is well known for its degradation and recycling trafficking. Recent evidence shows that these cell surface receptors translocate from cell surface to different cellular compartments, including the Golgi, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and the nucleus to regulate physiological and pathological functions. Although some trafficking mechanisms have been resolved, the mechanism of intracellular trafficking from cell surface to the Golgi is not yet completed understood. Here we report a mechanism of Golgi translocation of EGFR in which EGF-induced EGFR travels to the Golgi via microtubule (MT)-dependent movement by interacting with dynein and fuses with the Golgi through syntaxin 6 (Syn6)-mediated membrane fusion. We also demonstrate that the Golgi translocation of EGFR is necessary for its consequent nuclear translocation and transcriptional activity. Interestingly, foreign protein such as bacterial cholera toxin, which is known to activate its pathological function through the Golgi/ER retrograde pathway, also utilizes the MT/Syn6 pathway. Thus, the MT, and syntaxin 6 mediated trafficking pathway from cell surface to the Golgi and ER defines a comprehensive retrograde trafficking route for both cellular and foreign molecules to travel from cell surface to the Golgi and the nucleus.