No genetic bottleneck in Plasmodium falciparum wild-type Pfcrt alleles reemerging in Hainan Island, China, following high-level chloroquine resistance

Chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum was highly prevalent in Hainan, China, in the 1970s. Twenty-five years after cessation of chloroquine therapy, the prevalence of P. falciparum wild-type Pfcrt alleles has risen to 36% (95% confidence interval, 22.1 to 52.4%). The diverse origins of wild-type alleles indicate that there was no genetic bottleneck caused by high chloroquine resistance.

Circulating antibodies against Plasmodium falciparum histidine-rich proteins 2 interfere with antigen detection by rapid diagnostic tests

Background Rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) for detection of Plasmodium falciparum infection that target P. falciparum histidine-rich protein 2 (PfHRP2), a protein that circulates in the blood of patients infected with this species of malaria, are widely used to guide case management. Understanding determinants of PfHRP2 availability in circulation is therefore essential to understanding the performance of PfHRP2-detecting RDTs. Methods The possibility that pre-formed host anti-PfHRP2 antibodies may block target antigen detection, thereby causing false negative test results was investigated in this study. Results Anti-PfHRP2 antibodies were detected in 19/75 (25%) of plasma samples collected from patients with acute malaria from Cambodia, Nigeria and the Philippines, as well as in 3/28 (10.7%) asymptomatic Solomon Islands residents. Pre-incubation of plasma samples from subjects with high-titre anti-PfHRP2 antibodies with soluble PfHRP2 blocked the detection of the target antigen on two of the three brands of RDTs tested, leading to false negative results. Pre-incubation of the plasma with intact parasitized erythrocytes resulted in a reduction of band intensity at the highest parasite density, and a reduction of lower detection threshold by ten-fold on all three brands of RDTs tested. Conclusions These observations indicate possible reduced sensitivity for diagnosis of P. falciparum malaria using PfHRP2-detecting RDTs among people with high levels of specific antibodies and low density infection, as well as possible interference with tests configured to detect soluble PfHRP2 in saliva or urine samples. Further investigations are required to assess the impact of pre-formed anti-PfHRP2 antibodies on RDT performance in different transmission settings.

Mitochondrial membrane potential in a small subset of artemisinin-induced dormant plasmodium falciparum parasites in vitro

Artemisinin induced dormancy is a proposed mechanism for failures of mono-therapy and is linked with artemisinin resistance in Plasmodium falciparum. The biological characterization and dynamics of dormant parasites are not well understood. Here we report that following dihydroartemisinin (DHA) treatment in vitro, a small subset of morphologically dormant parasites was stained with rhodamine 123 (RH), a mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) marker, and persisted to recovery. FACS sorted RH-positive parasites resumed growth at 10,000/well while RH-negative parasites failed to recover at 5 million/well. Furthermore, transcriptional activity for mitochondrial enzymes was only detected in RH-positive dormant parasites. Importantly, after treating dormant parasites with different concentrations of atovaquone, a mitochondrial inhibitor, the recovery of dormant parasites was delayed or stopped. This demonstrates that mitochondrial activity is critical for survival and regrowth of dormant parasites and that RH staining provides a means of identifying these parasites. These findings provide novel paths for studying and eradicating this dormant stage.

Microparticle-mediated gene delivery for the enhanced expression of a 19-KDa fragment of merozoite surface protein 1 of Plasmodium falciparum

The 19 kDa carboxyl-terminal fragment of merozoite surface protein 1 (MSP119) is a major component of the invasion-inhibitory response in individual immunity to malaria. A novel ultrasonic atomization approach for the formulation of biodegradable poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) microparticles of malaria DNA vaccines encoding MSP119 is presented here. After condensing the plasmid DNA (pDNA) molecules with a cationic polymer polyethylenimine (PEI), a 40 kHz ultrasonic atomization frequency was used to formulate PLGA microparticles at a flow rate of 18 mL h1. High levels of gene expression and moderate cytotoxicity in COS-7 cells were achieved with the condensed pDNA at a nitrogen to phosphate (N/P) ratio of 20, thus demonstrating enhanced cellular uptake and expression of the transgene. The ability of the microparticles to convey pDNA was examined by characterizing the formulated microparticles. The microparticles displayed Z-average hydrodynamic diameters of 1.50-2.10 lm and zeta potentials of 17.8-23.2 mV. The encapsulation efficiencies were between 78 and 83%, and 76 and 85% of the embedded malaria pDNA molecules were released under physiological conditions in vitro. These results indicate that PLGA-mediated microparticles can be employed as potential gene delivery systems to antigen-presenting cells in the prevention of malaria.

Pan-Plasmodium band sensitivity for Plasmodium falciparum detection in combination malaria rapid diagnostic tests and implications for clinical management

Background: Malaria rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) are appropriate for case management, but persistent antigenaemia is a concern for HRP2-detecting RDTs in endemic areas. It has been suggested that pan-pLDH test bands on combination RDTs could be used to distinguish persistent antigenaemia from active Plasmodium falciparum infection, however this assumes all active infections produce positive results on both bands of RDTs, an assertion that has not been demonstrated. Methods: In this study, data generated during the WHO-FIND product testing programme for malaria RDTs was reviewed to investigate the reactivity of individual test bands against P. falciparum in 18 combination RDTs. Each product was tested against multiple wild-type P. falciparum only samples. Antigen levels were measured by quantitative ELISA for HRP2, pLDH and aldolase. Results: When tested against P. falciparum samples at 200 parasites/μL, 92% of RDTs were positive; 57% of these on both the P. falciparum and pan bands, while 43% were positive on the P. falciparum band only. There was a relationship between antigen concentration and band positivity; ≥4 ng/mL of HRP2 produced positive results in more than 95% of P. falciparum bands, while ≥45 ng/mL of pLDH was required for at least 90% of pan bands to be positive. Conclusions: In active P. falciparum infections it is common for combination RDTs to return a positive HRP2 band combined with a negative pan-pLDH band, and when both bands are positive, often the pan band is faint. Thus active infections could be missed if the presence of a HRP2 band in the absence of a pan band is interpreted as being caused solely by persistent antigenaemia.

The epidemiology of Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum malaria in China, 2004–2012 : from intensified control to elimination

Background In China, the national malaria elimination programme has been operating since 2010. This study aimed to explore the epidemiological changes in patterns of malaria in China from intensified control to elimination stages. Methods Data on nationwide malaria cases from 2004 to 2012 were extracted from the Chinese national malaria surveillance system. The secular trend, gender and age features, seasonality, and spatial distribution by Plasmodium species were analysed. Results In total, 238,443 malaria cases were reported, and the proportion of Plasmodium falciparum increased drastically from <10% before 2010 to 55.2% in 2012. From 2004 to 2006, malaria showed a significantly increasing trend and with the highest incidence peak in 2006 (4.6/100,000), while from 2007 onwards, malaria decreased sharply to only 0.18/100,000 in 2012. Males and young age groups became the predominantly affected population. The areas affected by Plasmodium vivax malaria shrunk, while areas affected by P. falciparum malaria expanded from 294 counties in 2004 to 600 counties in 2012. Conclusions This study demonstrated that malaria has decreased dramatically in the last five years, especially since the Chinese government launched a malaria elimination programme in 2010, and areas with reported falciparum malaria cases have expanded over recent years. These findings suggest that elimination efforts should be improved to meet these changes, so as to achieve the nationwide malaria elimination goal in China in 2020.

The complementation of yeast with human or Plasmodium falciparum Hsp90 confers differential inhibitor sensitivities

Developing novel drugs against the unicellular parasite Plasmodium is complicated by the paucity of simple screening systems. Heat-shock proteins are an essential class of proteins for the parasite's cyclical life style between different cellular milieus and temperatures. The molecular chaperone Hsp90 assists a large variety of proteins, but its supporting functions for many proteins that are important for cancer have made it into a well-studied drug target. With a better understanding of the differences between Hsp90 of the malarial parasite and Hsp90 of its human host, new therapeutic options might become available. We have generated a set of isogenic strains of the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae where the essential yeast Hsp90 proteins have been replaced with either of the two human cytosolic isoforms Hsp90 alpha or Hsp90 beta, or with Hsp90 from Plasmodium falciparum (Pf). All strains express large amounts of the Flag-tagged Hsp90 proteins and are viable. Even though the strain with Pf Hsp90 grows more poorly, it provides a tool to reconstitute additional aspects of the parasite Hsp90 complex and its interactions with substrates in yeast as a living test tube. Upon exposure of the set of Hsp90 test strains to the two Hsp90 inhibitors radicicol (Rd) and geldanamycin (GA), we found that the strain with Pf Hsp90 is relatively more sensitive to GA than to Rd compared to the strains with human Hsp90's. This indicates that this set of yeast strains could be used to screen for new Pf Hsp90 inhibitors with a wider therapeutic window.

Localisation of Plasmodium falciparum uroporphyrinogen III decarboxylase of the heme-biosynthetic pathway in the apicoplast and characterisation of its catalytic properties

Uroporphyrinogen decarboxylase (UROD) is a key enzyme in the heme-biosynthetic pathway and in Plasmodium falciparum it occupies a strategic position in the proposed hybrid pathway for heme biosynthesis involving shuttling of intermediates between different subcellular compartments in the parasite. In the present study, we demonstrate that an N-terminally truncated recombinant P. falciparum UROD (r(Δ)PfUROD) over-expressed and purified from Escherichia coli cells, as well as the native enzyme from the parasite were catalytically less efficient compared with the host enzyme, although they were similar in other enzyme parameters. Molecular modeling of PfUROD based on the known crystal structure of the human enzyme indicated that the protein manifests a distorted triose phosphate isomerase (TIM) barrel fold which is conserved in all the known structures of UROD. The parasite enzyme shares all the conserved or invariant amino acid residues at the active and substrate binding sites, but is rich in lysine residues compared with the host enzyme. Mutation of specific lysine residues corresponding to residues at the dimer interface in human UROD enhanced the catalytic efficiency of the enzyme and dimer stability indicating that the lysine rich nature and weak dimer interface of the wild-type PfUROD could be responsible for its low catalytic efficiency. PfUROD was localised to the apicoplast, indicating the requirement of additional mechanisms for transport of the product coproporphyrinogen to other subcellular sites for its further conversion and ultimate heme formation.

Identification of putative regulatory motifs in the upstream regions of co-expressed functional groups of genes in Plasmodium falciparum

Background: Regulation of gene expression in Plasmodium falciparum (Pf) remains poorly understood. While over half the genes are estimated to be regulated at the transcriptional level, few regulatory motifs and transcription regulators have been found. Results: The study seeks to identify putative regulatory motifs in the upstream regions of 13 functional groups of genes expressed in the intraerythrocytic developmental cycle of Pf. Three motif-discovery programs were used for the purpose, and motifs were searched for only on the gene coding strand. Four motifs – the 'G-rich', the 'C-rich', the 'TGTG' and the 'CACA' motifs – were identified, and zero to all four of these occur in the 13 sets of upstream regions. The 'CACA motif' was absent in functional groups expressed during the ring to early trophozoite transition. For functional groups expressed in each transition, the motifs tended to be similar. Upstream motifs in some functional groups showed 'positional conservation' by occurring at similar positions relative to the translational start site (TLS); this increases their significance as regulatory motifs. In the ribonucleotide synthesis, mitochondrial, proteasome and organellar translation machinery genes, G-rich, C-rich, CACA and TGTG motifs, respectively, occur with striking positional conservation. In the organellar translation machinery group, G-rich motifs occur close to the TLS. The same motifs were sometimes identified for multiple functional groups; differences in location and abundance of the motifs appear to ensure different modes of action. Conclusion: The identification of positionally conserved over-represented upstream motifs throws light on putative regulatory elements for transcription in Pf.

Detection of the protein dimers, multiple monomeric states and hydrated forms of Plasmodium falciparum triosephosphate isomerase in the gas phase

Dimeric and monomeric forms of the enzyme triosephosphate isomerase (TIM) from Plasmodium falciparum (Pf) have been detected under conditions of nanoflow by electrospray mass spectrometry. The dimer (M = 55 663 Da) exhibits a narrow charge state distribution with intense peaks limited to values of 18(+) to 21(+), maximal intensity being observed for charge states 19(+) and 20(+). A monomeric species with a charge state distribution ranging from 11(+) to 16(+) is also observed, which may be assigned to folded dissociated subunits. Complete dimer dissociation results under normal electrospray condition. The effects of solution pH and source temperature have been investigated. The observation of four distinct charge state distributions which may be assigned to a dimer, folded monomer, partially folded monomer and unfolded monomer is reported. Circular dichromism and fluorescence studies of Pf TIM at low pH support the retention of substantial secondary and tertiary structures. Satellite peaks in mass spectra corresponding to hydrated species are also observed and isotope shift upon deuteration is demonstrated. The analysis of all available independent crystal structures of Pf TIM and TIMs from other organisms permits identification of structurally conserved water molecules. Hydration observed in the dimer and folded monomeric forms in the gas phase may correspond to these conserved sites.

Beta-Ketoacyl-ACP Synthase I/II from Plasmodium falciparum (PfFabB/F)-Is it B or F?

Condensing enzymes play an important and decisive role in terms of fatty acid composition of any organism. They can be classified as condensing enzymes involved in initiating the cycle and enzymes involved in elongating the initiated fatty acyl chain. In E. coli, two isoforms for the elongation condensing enzymes (FabB and FabF) exists whereas Plasmodium genome contains only one isoform. By in vitro complementation studies in E. coli CY244 cells, we show that PfFabB/ functions like E. coli FabF as the growth of the mutant cells could rescued only in the presence of oleic acid. But unlike bacterial enzyme, PfFabB/F does not increase the cis-vaccenic acid content in the mutant cells upon lowering the growth temperature. This study thus highlights the distinct properties of P. falciparum FabF which sets it apart from E. coli and most other enzymes of this family, described so far.

Biochemical and structural characterization of residue 96 mutants of Plasmodium falciparum triosephosphate isomerase: active-site loop conformation, hydration and identification of a dimer-interface ligand-binding site

Plasmodium falciparum TIM (PfTIM) is unique in possessing a Phe residue at position 96 in place of the conserved Ser that is found in TIMs from the majority of other organisms. In order to probe the role of residue 96, three PfTIM mutants, F96S, F96H and F96W, have been biochemically and structurally characterized. The three mutants exhibited reduced catalytic efficiency and a decrease in substrate-binding affinity, with the most pronounced effects being observed for F96S and F96H. The k(cat) values and K-m values are (2.54 +/- 0.19) x 10(5) min(-1) and 0.39 +/- 0.049 mM, respectively, for the wild type; (3.72 +/- 0.28) x 10(3) min(-1) and 2.18 +/- 0.028 mM, respectively, for the F96S mutant;(1.11 +/- 0.03) x 10(4) min(-1) and 2.62 +/- 0.042 mM, respectively, for the F96H mutant; and (1.48 +/- 0.05) x 10(5) min(-1) and 1.20 +/- 0.056 mM, respectively, for the F96W mutant. Unliganded and 3-phosphoglycerate (3PG) complexed structures are reported for the wild-type enzyme and the mutants. The ligand binds to the active sites of the wild-type enzyme (wtPfTIM) and the F96W mutant, with a loop-open state in the former and both open and closed states in the latter. In contrast, no density for the ligand could be detected at the active sites of the F96S and F96H mutants under identical conditions. The decrease in ligand affinity could be a consequence of differences in the water network connecting residue 96 to Ser73 in the vicinity of the active site. Soaking of crystals of wtPfTIM and the F96S and F96H mutants resulted in the binding of 3PG at a dimer-interface site. In addition, loop closure at the liganded active site was observed for wtPfTIM. The dimer-interface site in PfTIM shows strong electrostatic anchoring of the phosphate group involving the Arg98 and Lys112 residues of PfTIM.

Mitochondrial localization of functional ferrochelatase from Plasmodium falciparum

In the malarial parasite, enzymes of heme-biosynthetic pathway are distributed in different cellular compartments. The site of localization of ferrochelatase in the malarial parasite is crucial, since it will decide the ultimate site of heme synthesis. Earlier results have differed in terms of localization, being the mitochondrion or apicoplast and the functional enzyme has not been cloned, expressed and characterized. The present study reveals that Plasmodium falciparum ferrochelatase (PfFC) gene encodes multiple transcripts of which the one encoding the full length functional protein (PfFC) has been cloned and the recombinant protein over-expressed and purified from E. coli cells. The enzyme shows maximum activity with iron, while zinc is a poor substrate. Immunofluorescence studies with antibodies to functional ferrochelatase reveal that the native enzyme is localized to the mitochondrion of the parasite indicating that this organelle is the ultimate site of heme synthesis.

Design, Development, Synthesis, and Docking Analysis of 2-substituted Triclosan Analogs as Inhibitors for Plasmodium falciparum Enoyl-ACP Reductase

A structure-based approach has been adopted to develop 2'substituted analogs of triclosan. The Cl at position 2' in ring B of triclosan was chemically substituted with other functional groups like NH2, NO2 and their inhibitory potencies against PfENR were determined. The binding energies of the 2' substituted analogs of triclosan for enoyl-acyl carrier protein reductase (ENR) of Plasmodium falciparum were determined using Autodock. Based on the autodock results, we synthesized the potential compounds. The IC50 and inhibition constant (K-i) of 2' substituted analogs of triclosan were determined against purified PfENR. Among them, two compounds,2-(2'-Amino-4'-chloro-phenoxy)-5-chloro-phenol (compound 4) and 5-chloro-2-(4'-chloro-2'-nitro-phenoxy)-phenol) (compound 5) exhibited good potencies. Compound 4 followed uncompetitive inhibition kinetics with crotonoyl CoA and competitive with NADH. It was shown to have an IC50 of 110 nM; inhibition constant was 104 nM with the substrate and 61 nM with the cofactor. IC50 Of compound 5 was determined to be 229 nM. Compounds 4 and 5 showed significant inhibition of the parasite growth in P. falciparum culture. (C) 2009 IUBMB IUBMB Life, 61(11):1083-1091, 2009.

A glimpse into the clinical proteome of human malaria parasites Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax

Malaria causes a worldwide annual mortality of about a million people.Rapidly evolving drug-resistant species of the parasite have created a pressing need for the identification of new drug targets and vaccine candidates. By developing fractionation protocols to enrich parasites from low-parasitemia patient samples, we have carried out the first ever proteomics analysis of clinical isolates of early stages of Plasmodium falciparum (Pf) and P. vivax. Patient-derived malarial parasites were directly processed and analyzed using shotgun proteomics approach using high-sensitivity MS for protein identification. Our study revealed about 100 parasite-coded gene products that included many known drug targets such as Pf hypoxanthine guanine phosphoribosyl transferase, Pf L-lactate dehydrogenase, and Plasmepsins. In addition,our study reports the expression of several parasite proteins in clinical ring stages that have never been reported in the ring stages of the laboratory-cultivated parasite strain. This proof-of-principle study represents a noteworthy step forward in our understanding of pathways elaborated by the parasite within the malaria patient and will pave the way towards identification of new drug and vaccine targets that can aid malaria therapy.