Expression of the cell surface mucin gene family in adenocarcinomas

Cell surface mucins are complex glycoproteins expressed on the apical membrane surface of mucosal epithelial cells. In malignant epithelial cells they are thought to influence cell adhesion, and are clinical targets for tumor immunotherapy and serum tumor marker assays. We have compared expression of MUC1, MUC3, MUC4, MUC11, MUC12 and MUC13 mRNA in epithelial cancers and/or cell lines with non-malignant tissues. In non-malignant tissues, MUC3, 4, 11, 12 and 13 were expressed at highest levels in gastrointestinal tissues, whereas MUC1 was more widely distributed. Significant down-regulation of the MUC4, MUC12 and MUC13 genes was observed in colonic cancers compared with normal tissue, whereas MUC1 was upregulated. In rectal cancers, levels of all six mucin genes were not significantly different to those in normal rectal tissues. Both MUC1 and MUC4 were down-regulated in gastric cancers, whereas cancer and normal tissue levels were similar for MUC3, 11, 12 and 13. In esophageal cancers there was a general trend toward higher levels than in normal tissue for MUC1, 3, 12 and 13. In ovarian cancers MUC1 levels were very high, whereas only low levels of all other mucins were observed. We also report expression in renal cell carcinomas, bladder carcinomas and breast cancer cell lines. The reported expression profiles of the cell surface mucin gene family will help direct biological and clinical studies of these molecules in mucosal biology, and in malignant and inflammatory diseases of epithelial tissues.

MUC1 gene polymorphism in three Nelore lines selected for growth and its association with growth and carcass traits

The objective of this study was to describe the VNTR polymorphism of the mucin 1 gene (MUC1) in three Nelore lines selected for yearling weight to determine whether allele and genotype frequencies of this polymorphism were affected by selection for growth. In addition, the effects of the polymorphism on growth and carcass traits were evaluated. Birth, weaning and yearling weights, rump height, Longissimus muscle area, backfat thickness, and rump fat thickness, were analyzed. A total of 295 Nelore heifers from the Beef Cattle Research Center, Instituto de Zootecnia de Sertozinho, were used, including 41 of the control line, 102 of the selection line and 152 of the traditional. The selection and traditional lines comprise animals selected for higher yearling weight, whereas control line animals are selected for yearling weight close to the average. Five alleles were identified, with allele 1 being the most frequent in the three lines, especially in the lines selected for higher means for yearling weight. Heterozygosity was significantly higher in the control line. Association analyses showed significant effects of allele 1 on birth weight and weaning weight while the allele 3 exert significant effects on yearling weight and back fat thickness. Despite these findings, application of this marker to marker-assisted selection requires more consistent results based on the genotyping of a larger number of animals in order to increase the accuracy of the statistical analyses.

Synthese von MUC1-Glycopeptid-Konjugaten mit fluorierten Analoga des Thomsen-Friedenreich-Antigens

Krebserkrankungen gehen oft mit der Überexpression von mucinartigen Glycoproteinen auf der Zelloberfläche einher. In vielen Krebserkrankungen wird aufgrund der fehlerhaften Expression verschiedener Glycosyltransferasen das transmembranständige Glycoprotein MUC1, mit verkürzten Glycanstrukturen, überexprimiert. Das Auftreten der verschiedenen tumor-assoziierten Antigene (TACA) korreliert meist mit dem Fortschreiten des Krebs und der Metastasierung. Daher stellen TACAs interessante Zielmoleküle für die Entwicklung einer aktiven Tumorimmuntherapie zur spezifischen Behandlung von Adenokarzinomen dar. In dieser Arbeit galt das Interesse dem epithelialen Mucin MUC1, auf Basis dessen ein synthetischer Zugang zu einheitlichen Antitumorvakzinen, welche aus mucinanalogen Glyco-peptid¬konjugaten des MUC1 und Carrierproteinen bestehen, hergestellt werden sollten.rnUm eine tumorspezifische Immunantwort zu erhalten, müssen die selbst schwach immunogenen MUC1-Antigene über einen nicht-immunogenen Spacer mit einem geeigneten Trägerprotein, wie Tetanus Toxoid oder Rinderserumalbumin (BSA), verbunden werden. rnDa ein Einsatz von Glycokonjugaten in Impfstoffen durch die metabolische Labilität der O-glycosidischen Bindungen eingeschränkt ist, wurden hierzu erstmals fluorierte Vetreter von MUC1-analogen Glycopeptiden verwendet, in denen das Kohlenhydrat-Epitop durch den strategischen Einbau von Fluor¬atomen gegenüber einem raschen Abbau durch Glycosidasen geschützt werden soll. Dazu wurden auf Basis des literaturbekannten Thomsen-Friedenreich-Antigens Synthesestrategien zur Herstellung eines 2’F- und eines 2’,6’-bisfluorierten-Analogons erarbeitet. rnSchlüsselschritte in der Synthese stellten neben der elektrophilen Fluorierung eines Galactalvorläufers auch die -selektive 3-Galactosylierung des TN-Antigen-Bausteins zum 2’F- und 2’,6’-bisfluorierten-Analogons des TF-Disaccharids dar. Durch entsprechende Schutzgruppentransformationen wurden die beiden Derivate in entsprechende Glycosyl¬amino-säure-Bausteine für die Festphasensynthese überführt.rnNeben den beiden Analoga des TF-Antigens wurde auch erstmals ein 2F-Analogon des 2,6-Sialyl-T-Antigens hergestellt. Dazu wurde der entsprechende 2’F-TF-Baustein mit Sialinsäure-xanthogenat nach bereits bekannten Syntheseprotokollen umgesetzt. Aufgrund von Substanzmangel konnte die Verbindung nicht zur Synthese eines MUC1-Glycopeptid-Analogons herangezogen werden.rnDer Einbau der hergestellten Glycosylaminosäure-Bausteine erfolgte in die aus 20 Amino-säuren bestehende vollständige Wiederholungseinheit aus der tandem repeat-Sequenz des MUC1, wobei die entsprechenden Glycanseitenketten stets in Position 6 eingeführt wurden. Um die erhaltenen Glycopeptide für immunologische Studien an Carrier-Proteine anbinden zu können und so ggf. zu funktionsfähigen Impfstoff-Konjugaten zu gelangen, wurden diese stets N-terminal mit einem nicht-immunogenen Triethylenglycol-Spacer verknüpft. Die anschließende Funktionalisierung mit Quadratsäurediethylester erlaubte die spätere chemoselektive Konjugation an Trägerproteine, wie Tetanus Toxoid oder BSA.rnIn ersten immunologischen Bindungsstudien wurden die synthetisierten BSA-Glycopeptid-Konjugate mit Serum-Antikörpern aus Vakzinierungsstudien von MUC1-Tetanus Toxoid-Konjugaten, die (i) eine natürliche TF-Antigenstruktur und (ii) ein entsprechendes TF-Antigenderivat mit Fluorsubstituenten an C-6 des Galactosamin-Bausteins und C-6’ des Galactoserests tragen, untersucht.rn

Heterogeneity of MUC1 expression by human breast carcinoma cell lines in vivo and in vitro

Increased expression of the epithelial mucin MUC1 has been linked to tumor aggressiveness in human breast carcinoma. Recent studies have demonstrated that overexpression of MUC1 interferes with cell-substrate and cell-cell adhesion by masking cell surface integrins and E-cadherin. Additionally, the cytoplasmic tail of MUC1 is involved in signal transduction and interactions with catenins. In the present study, we have examined the in vitro expression of MUC1 mRNA and protein in a panel of 14 human breast cancer cell lines using northern blotting, western blotting, immunocytochemistry, and flow cytometry. Considerable variability of expression was noted not only between cell lines but also within several individual lines. Many cell lines such as BT 20, KPL-1, and T47D expressed abundant MUC1 whilst others such as MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 showed intermediate expression, and MDA-MB-435 and MDA-MB-453 expressed very low levels. Low levels of MUC1 expression were associated with decreased expression of cytokeratin and increased expression of vimentin. Additionally, 12 of the cell lines were established as xenografts in immunocompromised (SCID) mice, and MUC1 expression in both the primary tumors as well as metastases was assessed immunohistochemically. In general, in vivo expression mirrored in vitro expression, although there was reduced in vivo expression in T47D and ZR-75-1 xenografts. Although we showed no correlation between tumorigenicity or metastasis and MUC1 expression, this study will assist development of experimental models to assess the influence of MUC1 of on breast cancer progression.

Expression of MUC1 and MUC2 mucins in epithelial ovarian tumours

This is the first study to describe the association between expression of MUC1 and MUC2 mucins and prognosis in ovarian cancer. Paraffin sections of epithelial ovarian tumours (n=182: 29 benign, 21 low malignant potential, and 132 invasive tumours) were analysed immunohistochemically for expression of MUC1 and MUC2 mucin core proteins. Most benign, low malignant potential, and invasive tumours showed high MUC1 expression in the cytoplasm. Low cytoplasmic expression of MUC1 was a predictor for good prognosis, particularly within stage III tumours. A minority of benign epithelial tumours, but most low malignant potential and invasive non-mucinous tumours, showed high MUC1 expression on the cell membrane. High apical MUC1 reactivity was associated with non-mucinous tumours. Low expression of MUC1 in the apical membrane was associated with early stage and good outcome for invasive tumours. Most benign and low malignant potential tumours, but only a minority of invasive tumours, showed MUC2 expression. MUC2 was found in non-mucinous as well as in mucinous tumours. The presence of MUC2 was inversely associated with high tumour grade but was not associated with altered survival. These results support experimental evidence that MUC1 influences the metastatic ability of ovarian cancer.

Chronic IL9 and IL-13 Exposure Leads to an Altered Differentiation of Ciliated Cells in a Well-Differentiated Paediatric Bronchial Epithelial Cell Model

Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease characterised by airways remodelling. In mouse models IL-9 and IL-13 have been implicated in airways remodelling including mucus hypersecretion and goblet cell hyperplasia. Their role, especially that of IL-9, has been much less studied in authentic human ex vivo models of the bronchial epithelium from normal and asthmatic children. We assessed the effects of IL-9, IL-13 and an IL-9/IL-13 combination, during differentiation of bronchial epithelial cells from normal (n?=?6) and asthmatic (n?=?8) children. Cultures were analysed for morphological markers and factors associated with altered differentiation (MUC5AC, SPDEF and MMP-7). IL-9, IL-9/IL-13 combination and IL-13 stimulated bronchial epithelial cells from normal children had fewer ciliated cells [14.8% (SD 8.9), p?=?0.048, 12.4 (SD 6.1), p?=?0.016 and 7.3% (SD 6.6), p?=?0.031] respectively compared with unstimulated [(21.4% (SD 9.6)]. IL-9 stimulation had no effect on goblet cell number in either group whereas IL-9/IL-13 combination and IL-13 significantly increased goblet cell number [24.8% (SD 8.8), p?=?0.02), 32.9% (SD 8.6), p?=?0.007] compared with unstimulated normal bronchial cells [(18.6% (SD 6.2)]. All stimulations increased MUC5AC mRNA in bronchial epithelial cells from normal children and increased MUC5AC mucin secretion. MMP-7 localisation was dysregulated in normal bronchial epithelium stimulated with Th2 cytokines which resembled the unstimulated bronchial epithelium of asthmatic children. All stimulations resulted in a significant reduction in transepithelial electrical resistance values over time suggesting a role in altered tight junction formation. We conclude that IL-9 does not increase goblet cell numbers in bronchial epithelial cell cultures from normal or asthmatic children. IL-9 and IL-13 alone and in combination, reduce ciliated cell numbers and transepithelial electrical resistance during differentiation of normal epithelium, which clinically could inhibit mucociliary clearance and drive an altered repair mechanism. This suggests an alternative role for IL-9 in airways remodelling and reaffirms IL-9 as a potential therapeutic target.© 2013 Parker et al.

Epidermal Growth Factor Removal or Tyrphostin AG1478 Treatment Reduces Goblet Cells & Mucus Secretion of Epithelial Cells from Asthmatic Children Using the Air-Liquid Interface Model

RATIONALE: Epithelial remodelling in asthma is characterised by goblet cell hyperplasia and mucus hypersecretion for which no therapies exist. Differentiated bronchial air-liquid interface cultures from asthmatic children display high goblet cell numbers. Epidermal growth factor and its receptor have been implicated in goblet cell hyperplasia.

OBJECTIVES: We hypothesised that EGF removal or tyrphostin AG1478 treatment of differentiating air-liquid interface cultures from asthmatic children would result in a reduction of epithelial goblet cells and mucus secretion.

METHODS: In Aim 1 primary bronchial epithelial cells from non-asthmatic (n = 5) and asthmatic (n = 5) children were differentiated under EGF-positive (10ng/ml EGF) and EGF-negative culture conditions for 28 days. In Aim 2, cultures from a further group of asthmatic children (n = 5) were grown under tyrphostin AG1478, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor, conditions. All cultures were analysed for epithelial resistance, markers of differentiation using immunocytochemistry, ELISA for MUC5AC mucin secretion and qPCR for MUC5AC mRNA.

RESULTS: In cultures from asthmatic children the goblet cell number was reduced in the EGF negative group (p = 0.01). Tyrphostin AG1478 treatment of cultures from asthmatic children had significant reductions in goblet cells at 0.2μg/ml (p = 0.03) and 2μg/ml (p = 0.003) as well as mucus secretion at 2μg/ml (p = 0.04).

CONCLUSIONS: We have shown in this preliminary study that through EGF removal and tyrphostin AG1478 treatment the goblet cell number and mucus hypersecretion in differentiating air-liquid interface cultures from asthmatic children is significantly reduced. This further highlights the epidermal growth factor receptor as a potential therapeutic target to inhibit goblet cell hyperplasia and mucus hypersecretion in asthma.

Bovine Muc1 is a highly polymorphic gene encoding an extensively glycosylated mucin that binds bacteria

The bovine Muc1 protein is synthesized by mammary epithelial cells and shed into milk as an integral component of the milk fat globule membrane; however, the structure and functions of this mucin, particularly in relation to lactation, are poorly defined. The objectives of this investigation were to investigate the Muc1 gene and protein structures in the context of lactation and to test the hypothesis that Muc1 has a role in innate immune defense. Polymerase chain reaction analysis of genomic DNA from 630 cattle revealed extensive polymorphism in the variable number of tandem repeats (VNTR) in the bovine Muc1 gene. Nine allelic
variants spanning 7 to 23 VNTR units, each encoding 20 AA, were identified. Three alleles, containing 11, 14, and 16 VNTR units, respectively, were predominant. In addition, a polymorphism in one of the VNTR units has the potential to introduce a unique site for N-linked glycosylation. Statistical analysis indicated weak associations between the VNTR alleles and milk protein and fat percentages in a progeny-tested population of Holstein-Friesian dairy cattle. No association with somatic cell count could be demonstrated. Bovine Muc1 was purified from milk fat globule membranes and characterized. The protein was highly glycosylated, primarily with O-linked sialylated T-antigen [Neu5Ac(α2–3)-Gal(β1–3)-GalNAcα1] and, to a lesser extent, with N-linked oligosaccharides, which together accounted for approximately 60% of the apparent mass of Muc1. Purified bovine Muc1 directly bound fluorescently labeled Escherichia coli BioParticles (Invitrogen, Mount Waverley, Australia) and inhibited their binding to bovine mammary epithelial cells grown in vitro.

Synthese von tumor-assoziierten MUC1-Mucin-Glycopeptid-Vakzinen und deren immunologische Evaluierung

Eine alternative Methode zur Therapie von Tumorerkrankungen bestünde in einer Immuntherapie ausgelöst durch synthetische Antitumor-Vakzine. Ein vielversprechendes Zielmolekül für eine solche Aktivimmunisierung ist das Glycoprotein MUC1, das auf nahezu allen Epithelgeweben exprimiert und auf Tumorgeweben stark überexprimiert wird. Seine extrazelluläre Domäne enthält eine Vielzahl von Tandem-Repeat-Sequenzen der Art: HGVTSAPDTRPAPGSTAPPA mit fünf potentiellen O-Glycosylierungs-Positionen. Da die Form der Glycosylierung des MUC1 in Tumorzellen stark von der auf normalen Zellen abweicht, liegen auf Tumorzellen eine Reihe tumor-assoziierter Saccharidantigene und Peptidepitope vor.rnIn dieser Arbeit wurden tumor-assoziierte Glycopeptidantigene aus der MUC1-Tandem-Repeat-Region hergestellt. Die synthetisierten MUC1-Glycopeptide tragen in verschiedenen Positionen eine Glycosylierung mit den tumor-assoziierten Tn- und STn-Saccharid-Antigenen. Zur Gewinnung von Vakzinen wurden diese Glycopeptid-Antigene über einen Spacer mit immunstimulierenden Komponenten verknüpft. Als Immunstimulanzien wurden ein T-Zell-Epitop aus dem Ovalbumin (OVA323-339) sowie die Carrier-Proteine Rinderserumalbumin (BSA) und Tetanus-Toxoid (TTox) verwendet. rnDie synthetischen MUC1-Glycopeptide wurden durch Immunisierung von Mäusen einer immunologischen Evaluierung unterzogen. Insbesondere die synthetischen MUC1-Glycopeptid-TTox-Vakzine lösen sehr starke Immunantworten aus. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die induzierten Antikörper stark an Tumorzellen und auch an Mammakarzinom-Gewebe binden, was für die Entwicklung von Antitumor-Vakzinen als vielversprechend einzustufen ist.

Synthese und immunologische Evaluierung von Antitumor-Impfstoffen aus dem epithelialen tumorassoziierten Mucin MUC1

Eine Immuntherapie von Tumorerkrankungen, die mit Hilfe von Antitumorimpfstoffen prophylaktisch und therapeutisch erfolgen könnte, wäre eine attraktive Alternative zu den bisher angewendeten Krebsbehandlungen. Aufgrund charakteristisch veränderter Aktivitäten von Glycosyltransferasen in der Glycoprotein-Biosynthese werden auf malignen Zellen stark verkürzte, frühzeitig sialylierte mucinartige Glycoproteine exprimiert. Diese verkürzten Kohlenhydrate repräsentieren tumorassoziierte Antigene. Sie haben zur Folge, dass Peptidepitope der Mucin-Glycoproteine, die auf gesundem Gewebe durch den hohen Glycosylierungsgrad maskiert sind, für das Immunsystem freiliegen. Diese Strukturunterschiede sollten einen selektiven Angriff auf das Tumorgewebe erlauben, ohne dass gesundes Gewebe beeinträchtigt wird, wenn es gelänge, das Immunsystem auf diese veränderten Strukturelemente zu fokussieren. Dabei ist es wichtig, dass die Immunantwort mit synthetisch definierten Glycopeptidepitopen ausgelöst wird, um Autoimmunreaktionen zu vermeiden. Somit ist die Synthese von exakt definierten tumorassoziierten Glycopeptiden von zentraler Bedeutung für die Entwicklung eines Antitumor-Impfstoffes. rnDa die tumorassoziierten Kohlenhydratstrukturen Antigene darstellen, die vom Immunsystem weitgehend toleriert werden, ist es notwendig, ihre Immunogenität mit Hilfe immunstimulierender Epitope so zu erhöhen, dass eine effiziente Immunreaktion erfolgt. Nach diesem Konzept wurden in der vorliegenden Arbeit Methoden und Strategien entwickelt, synthetische Impfstoff-Konjugate zu synthetisieren und immunologisch in Mausexperimenten zu evaluieren. So konnte gezeigt werden, das mit vollsynthetischen Analoga aus tumorassoziierten Glycopeptid-Oberflächenmolekülen in Kombination mit immunstimulierenden Substanzen, wie Trägerproteinen oder Mitogenen, hochselektive humorale Immunantworten ausgelöst werden können.rn

Regulation of mucin gene expression by CREB via a nonclassical retinoic acid signaling pathway.

Vitamin A and its metabolite retinoic acid (RA) are essential elements for normal lung development and the differentiation of lung epithelial cells. We previously showed that RA rapidly activated cyclic AMP response element-binding protein (CREB) in a nonclassical manner in normal human tracheobronchial epithelial (NHTBE) cells. In the present study, we further demonstrated that this nonclassical signaling of RA on the activation of CREB plays a critical role in regulating the expression of airway epithelial cell differentiation markers, the MUC2, MUC5AC, and MUC5B genes. We found that RA rapidly activates the protein kinase Calpha isozyme and transmits the activation signal to CREB via the Raf/MEK/extracellular signal-regulated kinase/p90 ribosomal S6 kinase (RSK) pathway. Activated RSK translocated from the cytoplasm to the nucleus, where it phosphorylates CREB. Activated CREB then binds to a cis-acting replication element motif on the promoter (at nucleotides [nt] -878 to -871) of the MUC5AC gene. The depletion of CREB using small interfering RNA abolished not only the RA-induced MUC5AC but also RA-induced MUC2 and MUC5B. Taken together, our findings demonstrate that CREB activation via this nonclassical RA signaling pathway may play an important role in regulating the expression of mucin genes and mediating the early biological effects of RA during normal mucous differentiation in NHTBE cells.

Expression and hormonal regulation of Muc-1 at the apical surface of mouse uterine epithelial cells and its role in modulating embryo implantation

Previous studies from our lab have established that large molecular weight mucin glycoproteins are major apically-disposed components of mouse uterine epithelial cells in vitro (Valdizan et al., (1992) J. Cell. Physiol. 151:451-465). The present studies demonstrate that Muc-1 represents one of the apically-disposed mucin glycoproteins of mouse uterine epithelia, and that Muc-1 protein and mRNA expression are regulated in the peri-implantation stage mouse uterus by ovarian steroids. Muc-1 expression is high in the proestrous and estrous stages, and decreases during diestrous. Both Muc-1 protein and mRNA levels decline to barely detectable levels by day 4 of pregnancy, i.e., prior to the time of blastocyst attachment. In contrast, Muc-1 expression in the cervix and vagina is maintained during this same period. Delayed implantation was established in pregnant mice by ovariectomy and maintained by administration of exogenous progesterone. Initiation of implantation was triggered by coinjection of progesterone maintained mice with a nidatory dose of 17$\beta$-estradiol. Muc-1 levels in the uterine epithelia of progesterone maintained mice declined to similar low levels as observed on day 4 of normal pregnancy. Coinjection of estradiol did not alter Muc-1 expression suggesting that down-regulation of Muc-1 is a progesterone dominated event. This was confirmed in ovariectomized, non-pregnant mice which displayed stimulation of Muc-1 expression following 6 hr of estradiol injection. Estradiol stimulated Muc-1 expression was inhibited by the pure antiestrogen, ICI 164,384. While progesterone alone had no effect on Muc-1 expression, it antagonized estradiol action in this regard. Injection of pregnant mice with the antiprogestin, RU 486, a known implantation inhibitor, on day 3 of pregnancy restored high level expression of Muc-1 mRNA on day 4, indicating that down-regulation of Muc-1 is progesterone receptor-mediated. Muc-1 appears to function as an anti-adhesive molecule at the apical cell surface of mouse uterine epithelial cells. Treatment of polarized cultures of mouse uterine epithelial cells with O-sialoglycoprotein endopeptidase reduced mucin expression in vitro, by about 50%, and converted polarized uterine epithelia to a functionally receptive state. Similarly, ablation of Muc-1 in Muc-1 null mice resulted in polarized uterine epithelia that were functionally receptive as compared to their wild-type counterparts in vitro. Collectively, these data indicate that Muc-1 and other mucins function as anti-adhesive molecules and that reduction or removal of these molecules is a prerequisite for the generation of a receptive uterine state. ^

NFkappaB and STAT binding elements participate in regulation of MUC1 expression in normal and transformed mammary epithelial cells

The MUC1 gene encodes a transmembrane mucin glycoprotein that is overexpressed in several cancers of epithelial origin, including those of breast, pancreas, lung, ovary, and colon. Functions of MUC1 include protection of mucosal epithelium, modulation of cellular adhesion, and signal transduction. Aberrantly increased expression of MUC1 in cancer cells promotes tumor progression through adaptation of these functions. Some regulatory elements participating in MUC1 transcription have been described, but the mechanisms responsible for overexpression are largely unknown. A region of MUC1 5′ flanking sequence containing two conserved potential cytokine response elements, an NFκB site at −589/−580 and a STAT binding element (SBE) at −503/−495, has been implicated in high level expression in breast and pancreatic cancer cell lines. Persistent stimulation by proinflammatory cytokines may contribute to increased MUC1 transcription by tumor cells. ^ T47D breast cancer cells and normal human mammary epithelial cells (HMEC) were used to determine the roles of the κB site and SBE in basal and stimulated expression of MUC1. Treatment of T47D cells and HMEC with interferon-γ (IFNγ) alone enhanced MUC1 expression at the level of transcription, and the effect of IFNγ was further stimulated by tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα). MUC1 responsiveness to these cytokines was modest in T47D cells but clearly evident in HMEC. Transient transfection of T47D cells with mutant MUC1 promoter constructs revealed that the κB site at −589/−580 and the SBE at −503/−495 and were required for cooperative stimulation by TNFα and IFNγ. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSA) revealed that the synergy was mediated not by cooperative binding of transcription factors but by the independent actions of STAT1α and NFκB p65 on their respective binding sites. Independent mutations in the κB site and SBE abrogated cytokine responsiveness and reduced basal MUC1 promoter activity by 45–50%. However, only the κB site appeared to be constitutively activated in T47D cells, in part by NFκB p65. These findings implicate two cytokine response elements in the 5 ′ flanking region of MUC1, specifically a κB site and a STAT binding element, in overexpression of MUC1 in breast cancer cells. ^

Induction of cellular immunity in chimpanzees to human tumor-associated antigen mucin by vaccination with MUC-1 cDNA-transfected Epstein-Barr virus-immortalized autologous B cells.

Aberrant glycosylation of the mucin molecule (encoded by the gene MUC-1) on human epithelial cell tumors leads to the exposure of tumor-associated epitopes recognized by patients' antibodies and cytotoxic T cells. Consequently, these epitopes could be considered targets for immunotherapy. We designed a cellular vaccine, employing, instead of tumor cells, autologous Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-immortalized B cells as carriers of tumor-associated mucin, to take advantage of their costimulatory molecules for T-cell activation. The vaccine was tested in chimpanzees because of the identity of the human and chimpanzee MUC-1 tandem repeat sequence. EBV-immortalized B cells derived from two chimpanzees were transfected with MUC-1 cDNA, treated with glycosylation inhibitor phenyl-N-acetyl-alpha-D-galactosaminide to expose tumor-associated epitopes, irradiated, and injected subcutaneously four times at 3-week intervals. One vaccine preparation also contained cells transduced with the interleukin 2 (IL-2) cDNA and producing low levels of IL-2. Already after the first injection we found in the peripheral blood measurable frequency of cytotoxic T-cell precursors specific for underglycosylated mucin. The highest frequency observed was after the last boost, in the lymph node draining the vaccination site. Delayed-type hypersensitivity reaction to the injected immunogens was also induced, whereas no appearance of mucin-specific antibodies was seen. Long-term observation of the animals yielded no signs of adverse effects of this immunization. Autologous antigen-presenting cells, like EBV-immortalized B cells, expressing tumor-associated antigens are potentially useful immunogens for induction of cellular anti-tumor responses in vivo.