Inhibierung des IL-17A vermittelten Blut-Hirnschrankenversagens in experimenteller Autoimmunenzephalomyelitis (EAE) und Mikrogliaaktivierung durch IL-17A

Experimentelle Autoimmunenzephalomyelitis (EAE) ist das Tiermodell für Multiple Sklerose (MS). Es ist bekannt, dass das proinflammatorische Zytokin IL-17A eine wichtige Rolle in MS und EAE spielt. Dieses wird hauptsächlich von einer Subpopulation der T-Helferzellen (Th17 Zellen) exprimiert. Es war bekannt, dass diese am Zusammenbruch der Blut-Hirnschranke (BHS) beteiligt sind. Der Integritätsverlust der BHS ist ein wichtiger und früher Aspekt in der Pathogenese von EAE und MS. Daraufhin können Immunzellen in das zentrale Nervensystem (ZNS) eindringen. Spezifische T-Zellen greifen das Myelin an und führen so zu einer Entzündungsreaktion, Demyelinisierung und axonalem Schaden. In dieser Arbeit konnte ich zeigen, dass durch Hemmung des kontraktilen endothelialen Apparates das BHS Versagen vermindert werden kann und es dadurch zu einem milderen Verlauf der EAE Pathogenese kommt. Wird der Inhibitor der Myosinleichtkettenkinase ML-7 C57/bl6 Mäusen, bei denen EAE induziert wurde, intraperitoneal verabreicht, kommt es zu einem geringeren Phosphorylierungsgrad der leichten Kette des Myosins in Endothelzellen und folglich zu einem verringerten Schrankenversagen. Außerdem konnte ich zeigen, dass weniger reaktive Sauerstoffspezies (ROS) gebildet werden. Folglich kommt es zu einer geringeren Infiltration von Immunzellen aus der Peripherie in das ZNS. Somit werden weniger Zytokine und auch Matrixmetalloproteinasen (MMP) ausgeschüttet, wodurch die Entzündungsreaktion weniger stark ausgeprägt ist. Außerdem werden weniger Mikrogliazellen aktiviert. Ich habe den Zusammenhang zwischen Mikrogliazellaktivierung und IL-17A näher untersucht. Dieses proinflammatorische Zytokin aktiviert Mikrogliazellen auch in vitro. Durch IL-17A Stimulation kommt es zur vermehrten ROS Bildung. Folglich kommt es zu einer vermehrten Proliferation und Migration, sowie einer erhöhten Zytokinproduktion. Außerdem konnte ich zeigen, dass der N-Methyl-D-Aspartat (NMDA)-Rezeptor an der Mikrogliaaktivierung beteiligt ist. Abhängig von IL-17A Stimulation kommt es zu einem Kalziumeinstrom über den NMDA-Rezeptor. Werden Inhibitoren des NMDA-Rezeptors eingesetzt, können IL-17A vermittelte Proliferation, Migration, Zytokin-und ROS-Produktion verhindert werden. Der NMDA-Rezeptor ist sehr gut in Neuronen erforscht, wohingegen bisher sehr wenig über seine Funktion in Gliazellen bekannt war. In dieser Arbeit ist es mir gelungen einen Zusammenhang zwischen IL-17A vermittelter Mikrogliaaktivierung und Kalziumeinstrom über den NMDA-Rezeptor herzustellen.

Interleukin 17A is an immune marker for chlamydial disease severity and pathogenesis in the koala (Phascolarctos cinereus)

The koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) is an iconic Australian marsupial species that is facing many threats to its survival. Chlamydia pecorum infections are a significant contributor to this ongoing decline. A major limiting factor in our ability to manage and control chlamydial disease in koalas is a limited understanding of the koala’s cell-mediated immune response to infections by this bacterial pathogen. To identify immunological markers associated with chlamydial infection and disease in koalas, we used koala-specific Quantitative Real Time PCR (qrtPCR) assays to profile the cytokine responses of Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells (PBMCs) collected from 41 koalas with different stages of chlamydial disease. Target cytokines included the principal Th1 (Interferon gamma; IFNγ), Th2 (Interleukin 10; IL10), and pro-inflammatory cytokines (Tumor Necrosis Factor alpha; TNFα). A novel koala-specific IL17A qrtPCR assay was also developed as part of this study to quantitate the gene expression of this Th17 cytokine in koalas. A statistically significant higher IL17A gene expression was observed in animals with current chlamydial disease compared to animals with asymptomatic chlamydial infection. A modest up-regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as TNFα and IFNγ, was also observed in these animals with signs of current chlamydial disease. IL10 gene expression was not evident in the majority of animals from both groups. Future longitudinal studies are now required to confirm the role played by cytokines in pathology and/or protection against C. pecorum infection in the koala.

The nature of innate and adaptive interleukin-17A responses in sham or bacterial inoculation

Streptococcus pyogenes is the causative agent of numerous diseases ranging from benign infections (pharyngitis and impetigo) to severe infections associated with high mortality (necrotizing fasciitis and bacterial sepsis). As with other bacterial infections, there is considerable interest in characterizing the contribution of interleukin-17A (IL-17A) responses to protective immunity. We here show significant il17a up-regulation by quantitative real-time PCR in secondary lymphoid organs, correlating with increased protein levels in the serum within a short time of S. pyogenes infection. However, our data offer an important caveat to studies of IL-17A responsiveness following antigen inoculation, because enhanced levels of IL-17A were also detected in the serum of sham-infected mice, indicating that inoculation trauma alone can stimulate the production of this cytokine. This highlights the potency and speed of innate IL-17A immune responses after inoculation and the importance of proper and appropriate controls in comparative analysis of immune responses observed during microbial infection.

Innate Lymphoid Cells are the Predominant Source of Interleukin-17A During the Early Pathogenesis of Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome

Rationale: IL-17A is purported to help drive early pathogenesis in acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) by enhancing neutrophil recruitment. Whilst IL-17A is the archetypal cytokine of T helper (Th)17 cells, it is produced by a number of lymphocytes, the source during ARDS being unknown.

Objectives: To identify the cellular source and the role of IL17A in the early phase of lung injury

Methods: Lung injury was induced in WT (C57BL/6) and IL-17 KO mice with aerosolised LPS (100 µg) or Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection. Detailed phenotyping of the cells expressing RORγt, the transcriptional regulator of IL-17 production, in the mouse lung at 24 hours was carried out by flow cytometry.

Measurement and Main Results: A 100-fold reduction in neutrophil infiltration was observed in the lungs of the IL-17A KO compared to wild type (WT) mice. The majority of RORγt+ cells in the mouse lung were the recently identified type 3 innate lymphoid cells (ILC3). Detailed characterisation revealed these pulmonary ILC3s (pILC3s) to be discrete from those described in the gut. The critical role of these cells was verified by inducing injury in Rag2 KO mice which lack T cells but retain ILCs. No amelioration of pathology was observed in the Rag2 KO mice.

Conclusions: IL-17 is rapidly produced during lung injury and significantly contributes to early immunopathogenesis. This is orchestrated largely by a distinct population of pILC3 cells. Modulation of pILC3s’ activity may potentiate early control of the inflammatory dysregulation seen in ARDS, opening up new therapeutic targets.

Decreased RNA expression of interleukin 17A in skin of leprosy

Interleukin-17A (IL-17A) is a proinflamatory cytokine that plays an important role in fighting pathogens at mucosal interfaces, by summoning neutrophils and upregulating cytoplasmatic antimicrobial peptides. So far, the presence of IL-17A in leprosy has not been demonstrated. The expression of IL-17A and related cytokines (IL-6 and IL-23p19) was addressed through RNA extraction and cDNA quantitative amplification in macerated biopsies of active lesions of 48 leprosy patients and 20 fragments of normal skin of individuals. Blood levels of IL-17A, IL-23p19 and IL-6 were determined by ELISA. We found an abrogated mRNA IL-17A response in all biopsies of leprosy patients, as compared with controls. Circulating IL-17A and IL-23p19 were undetectable in both patients and controls, but IL-6 was higher in lepromatous patients. Although at low levels, IL-17A mRNA in lepromatous patients had an inverse linear correlation with bacillary burden. Low expression of IL-17A in patients may be a constitutive genetic feature of leprosy patients or a circumstantial event induced by the local presence of the pathogen, as an escape mechanism.

Interleukin-17A stimulates granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor release by murine osteoblasts in the presence of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) and inhibits murine osteoclast development in vitro

OBJECTIVE To investigate the effects of interleukin-17A (IL-17A) on osteoclastogenesis in vitro. METHODS Bone marrow cells (BMCs) were isolated from the excised tibia and femora of wild-type C57BL/6J mice, and osteoblasts were obtained by sequential digestion of the calvariae of ddY, C57BL/6J, and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor-knockout (GM-CSF(-/-)) mice. Monocultures of BMCs or cocultures of BMCs and osteoblasts were supplemented with or without 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3)(1,25[OH](2)D(3)), recombinant human macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF), RANKL, and IL-17A. After 5-6 days, the cultures were fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde and subsequently stained for the osteoclast marker enzyme tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP). Osteoprotegerin (OPG) and GM-CSF expression were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and transcripts for RANK and RANKL were detected by real-time polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS In both culture systems, IL-17A alone did not affect the development of osteoclasts. However, the addition of IL-17A plus 1,25(OH)(2)D(3) to cocultures inhibited early osteoclast development within the first 3 days of culture and induced release of GM-CSF into the culture supernatants. Furthermore, in cocultures of GM-CSF(-/-) mouse osteoblasts and wild-type mouse BMCs, IL-17A did not affect osteoclast development, corroborating the role of GM-CSF as the mediator of the observed inhibition of osteoclastogenesis by IL-17A. CONCLUSION These findings suggest that IL-17A interferes with the differentiation of osteoclast precursors by inducing the release of GM-CSF from osteoblasts.

Functional Interleukin-17 Receptor A is Expressed in Central Nervous System Glia and Upregulated in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis

Background: Interleukin-17A (IL-17A) is the founding member of a novel family of inflammatory cytokines that plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of many autoimmune diseases, including multiple sclerosis (MS) and its animal model, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). IL-17A signals through its receptor, IL-17RA, which is expressed in many peripheral tissues; however, expression of IL-17RA in the central nervous system (CNS) and its role in CNS inflammation are not well understood. Methods: EAE was induced in C57Bl/6 mice by immunization with myelin oligodendroglial glycoprotein. IL-17RA expression in the CNS was compared between control and EAE mice using RT-PCR, in situ hybridization, and immunohistochemistry. Cell-type specific expression was examined in isolated astrocytic and microglial cell cultures. Cytokine and chemokine production was measured in IL-17A treated cultures to evaluate the functional status of IL-17RA. Results: Here we report increased IL-17RA expression in the CNS of mice with EAE, and constitutive expression of functional IL-17RA in mouse CNS tissue. Specifically, astrocytes and microglia express IL-17RA in vitro, and IL-17A treatment induces biological responses in these cells, including significant upregulation of MCP-1, MCP-5, MIP-2 and KC chemokine secretion. Exogenous IL-17A does not significantly alter the expression of IL-17RA in glial cells, suggesting that upregulation of chemokines by glial cells is due to IL-17A signaling through constitutively expressed IL-17RA. Conclusion: IL-17RA expression is significantly increased in the CNS of mice with EAE compared to healthy mice, suggesting that IL-17RA signaling in glial cells can play an important role in autoimmune inflammation of the CNS and may be a potential pathway to target for therapeutic interventions. © 2009 Sarma et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.

Orphan receptor IL-17RD tunes IL-17A signalling and is required for neutrophilia

Interleukin-17A, the prototypical member of the interleukin-17 cytokine family, coordinates local tissue inflammation by recruiting neutrophils to sites of infection. Dysregulation of interleukin-17 signalling has been linked to the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases and autoimmunity. The interleukin-17 receptor family members (A-E) have a broad range of functional effects in immune signalling yet no known role has been described for the remaining orphan receptor, interleukin-17 receptor D, in regulating interleukin-17A-induced signalling pathways. Here we demonstrate that interleukin-17 receptor D can differentially regulate the various pathways employed by interleukin-17A. Neutrophil recruitment, in response to in vivo administration of interleukin-17A, is abolished in interleukin-17 receptor D-deficient mice, correlating with reduced interleukin-17A-induced activation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase and expression of the neutrophil chemokine MIP-2. In contrast, interleukin-17 receptor D deficiency results in enhanced interleukin-17A-induced activation of nuclear factor-kappa B and interleukin-6 and keratinocyte chemoattractant expression. Interleukin-17 receptor D disrupts the interaction of Act1 and TRAF6 causing differential regulation of nuclear factor-kappa B and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase signalling pathways. © 2012 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved.

Molecular targets in arthritis and recent trends in nanotherapy

Due to its severity and increasing epidemiology, arthritis needs no description. There are various forms of arthritis most of which are disabling, very painful, and common. In spite of breakthroughs in the field of drug discovery, there is no cure for arthritis that can eliminate the disease permanently and ease the pain. The present review focuses on some of the most successful drugs in arthritis therapy and their side effects. Potential new targets in arthritis therapy such as interleukin-1β, interleukin-17A, tumor necrosis factor alpha, osteopontin, and several others have been discussed here, which can lead to refinement of current therapeutic modalities. Mechanisms for different forms of arthritis have been discussed along with the molecules that act as potential biomarkers for arthritis. Due to the difficulty in monitoring the disease progression to detect the advanced manifestations of the diseases, drug-induced cytotoxicity, and problems with drug delivery; nanoparticle therapy has gained the attention of the researchers. The unique properties of nanoparticles make them highly attractive for the design of novel therapeutics or diagnostic agents for arthritis. The review also focuses on the recent trends in nanoformulation development used for arthritis therapy. This review is, therefore, important because it describes the relevance and need for more arthritis research, it brings forth a critical discussion of successful drugs in arthritis and analyses the key molecular targets. The review also identifies several knowledge gaps in the published research so far along with the proposal of new ideas and future directions in arthritis therapy.

Interleukin-23 mediates the intestinal response to microbial β-1,3-glucan and the development of spondyloarthritis pathology in SKG mice

Objective Spondyloarthritides (SpA) occur in 1% of the population and include ankylosing spondylitis (AS) and arthropathy of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), with characteristic spondylitis, arthritis, enthesitis, and IBD. Genetic studies implicate interleukin-23 (IL-23) receptor signaling in the development of SpA and IBD, and IL-23 overexpression in mice is sufficient for enthesitis, driven by entheseal-resident T cells. However, in genetically prone individuals, it is not clear where IL-23 is produced and how it drives the SpA syndrome, including IBD or subclinical gut inflammation of AS. Moreover, it is unclear why specific tissue involvement varies between patients with SpA. We undertook this study to determine the location of IL-23 production and its role in SpA pathogenesis in BALB/c ZAP-70W163C-mutant (SKG) mice injected intraperitoneally with β-1,3-glucan (curdlan). Methods Eight weeks after curdlan injection in wild-type or IL-17A-/- SKG or BALB/c mice, pathology was scored in tissue sections. Mice were treated with anti-IL-23 or anti-IL-22. Cytokine production and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress were determined in affected organs. Results In curdlan-treated SKG mice, arthritis, enthesitis, and ileitis were IL-23 dependent. Enthesitis was specifically dependent on IL-17A and IL-22. IL-23 was induced in the ileum, where it amplified ER stress, goblet cell dysfunction, and proinflammatory cytokine production. IL-17A was pathogenic, while IL-22 was protective against ileitis. IL-22+CD3- innate-like cells were increased in lamina propria mononuclear cells of ileitis-resistant BALB/c mice, which developed ileitis after curdlan injection and anti-IL-22. Conclusion In response to systemic β-1,3-glucan, intestinal IL-23 provokes local mucosal dysregulation and cytokines driving the SpA syndrome, including IL-17/IL-22-dependent enthesitis. Innate IL-22 production promotes ileal tolerance.

Anti-TNF antibody-induced psoriasiform skin lesions in patients with inflammatory bowel disease are characterised by interferon-γ-expressing Th1 cells and IL-17A/IL-22-expressing Th17 cells and respond to anti-IL-12/IL-23 antibody treatment

Background We analysed incidence, predictors, histological features and specific treatment options of anti-tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) antibody-induced psoriasiform skin lesions in patients with inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD).

Design Patients with IBD were prospectively screened for anti-TNF-induced psoriasiform skin lesions. Patients were genotyped for IL23R and IL12B variants. Skin lesions were examined for infiltrating Th1 and Th17 cells. Patients with severe lesions were treated with the anti-interleukin (IL)-12/IL-23 p40 antibody ustekinumab.

Results Among 434 anti-TNF-treated patients with IBD, 21 (4.8%) developed psoriasiform skin lesions. Multiple logistic regression revealed smoking (p=0.007; OR 4.24, 95% CI 1.55 to 13.60) and an increased body mass index (p=0.029; OR 1.12, 95% CI 1.01 to 1.24) as main predictors for these lesions. Nine patients with Crohn's disease and with severe psoriasiform lesions and/or anti-TNF antibody-induced alopecia were successfully treated with the anti-p40-IL-12/IL-23 antibody ustekinumab (response rate 100%). Skin lesions were histologically characterised by infiltrates of IL-17A/IL-22-secreting T helper 17 (Th17) cells and interferon (IFN)-gamma-secreting Th1 cells and IFN-alpha-expressing cells. IL-17A expression was significantly stronger in patients requiring ustekinumab than in patients responding to topical therapy (p=0.001). IL23R genotyping suggests disease-modifying effects of rs11209026 (p.Arg381Gln) and rs7530511 (p.Leu310Pro) in patients requiring ustekinumab.

Conclusions New onset psoriasiform skin lesions develop in nearly 5% of anti-TNF-treated patients with IBD. We identified smoking as a main risk factor for developing these lesions. Anti-TNF-induced psoriasiform skin lesions are characterised by Th17 and Th1 cell infiltrates. The number of IL-17A-expressing T cells correlates with the severity of skin lesions. Anti-IL-12/IL23 antibody therapy is a highly effective therapy for these lesions.

Interleukin-15 in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis and its animal models

L'interleukine-15 (IL-15) contribue au développement et à l’activation des lymphocytes T CD8, des cellules immunes qui ont été impliquées dans plusieurs maladies auto-immunes telle la sclérose en plaques. Des niveaux élevés de l'IL-15 ont été trouvés chez les patients atteints de cette maladie comparativement aux témoins, mais aucune étude n'a examiné les effets de tels niveaux élevés sur les lymphocytes T CD8. Les objectifs de notre étude étaient 1- de caractériser l’expression de l'IL-15 par des lymphocytes B humains et de déterminer ses effets sur les fonctions des lymphocytes T CD8, et 2- d’évaluer l'expression in vivo de l'IL-15 dans des modèles murins de la sclérose en plaques. Nous avons établi que les cellules B humaines augmentaient leur expression de l'IL-15 suite à une stimulation via le CD40. De plus, les fonctions effectrices des lymphocytes T CD8 ont été significativement augmentées lors des co-cultures avec des cellules B alloréactives exprimant l'IL-15. Dans les modèles murins de la sclérose en plaques, nous avons détecté au sein du système nerveux central des cellules immunes exprimant l’IL-15 ainsi que des cellules T CD8 exprimant le récepteur pour cette cytokine à différents stades de la maladie. Nous avons démontré que les cellules B modulent des réponses des lymphocytes T CD8 via l’IL-15, ce qui suggère un rôle pour les cellules B dans la pathogenèse de la sclérose en plaques. Nous avons aussi mis en évidence la présence de cellules exprimant l’IL-15 dans le système nerveux central dans des modèles murins de cette maladie.

Persistent inflammation in the CNS during chronic EAE despite local absence of IL-17 production

Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is an artificially induced demyelination of the central nervous system (CNS) that resembles multiple sclerosis in its clinical, histopathological, and immunological features. Activated Th1 and Th17 cells are thought to be the main immunological players during EAE development. This study was designed to evaluate peripheral and local contribution of IL-17 to acute and chronic EAE stages. C57BL/6 mice were immunized with MOG plus complete Freund's adjuvant followed by pertussis toxin. Mice presented an initial acute phase characterized by accentuated weight loss and high clinical score, followed by a partial recovery when the animals reached normal body weight and smaller clinical scores. Spleen cells stimulated with MOG produced significantly higher levels of IFN-γ during the acute period whereas similar IL-17 levels were produced during both disease stages. CNS-infiltrating cells stimulated with MOG produced similar amounts of IFN-γ but, IL-17 was produced only at the acute phase of EAE. The percentage of Foxp3+ Treg cells, at the spleen and CNS, was elevated during both phases. The degree of inflammation was similar at both disease stages. Partial clinical recovery observed during chronic EAE was associated with no IL-17 production and presence of Foxp3+ Treg cells in the CNS. © 2013 Sofia Fernanda Gonçalves Zorzella-Pezavento et al.

Novel mouse models for use in IL-17A and Th17 research

Th17 cells have emerged as a proinflamatory cell type with strong links to autoimmunity and immunopathology. The aims of this thesis are two-fold; Firstly, generation of a novel mouse model that allows in vivo and/or ex vivo observation and manipulation of Th17 cells. Secondly, to generate a mouse model capable of conditionally overexpressing the hallmark Th17 cytokine, IL-17A. Given the expertise and experience in our lab with respect to conditional gene targeting, Cre-LoxP-mediated approaches were chosen and utilized to achieve this goal in both mouse models. The resulting strains and the knowledge generated from their useage are discussed in this work. Furthermore, the recently generated IL-6Rα conditional allele allows for ablation of IL-6 signaling in a cell type-specific manner. We wanted to analyze the role of IL-6 signaling with respect to EAE pathogenesis and development of pathogenic Th17 cells, and the results generated are published in this work.

Untersuchungen zur Regulation von T-Effektorzellen im peripheren Blut von MS-Patienten und humanisierten Mäusen mit einer induzierten autoimmunen Enzephalitis

Die Multiple Sklerose (MS) ist eine Autoimmunkrankheit des zentralen Nervensystems, bei der sich autoreaktive T-Effektorzellen der Kontrolle durch regulatorische T-Zellen (Treg) entziehen. Innerhalb dieser Arbeit wurde gezeigt, dass T-Effektorzellen von MS-Patienten insensitiv gegenüber der Suppression durch Treg sind. Hervorgerufen wird diese Treg-Resistenz durch Interleukin-6 (IL-6). Die Inhibition des IL-6-Signalweges stellt die Treg-vermittelte Suppression der T-Effektorzellen wieder her. Es zeigte sich, dass die Bildung von IL-6 und die Expression des IL-6-Rezeptors in MS-Patienten in einer positiven Rückkopplungsschleife von IL-6 selbst induziert werden.rnZur Analyse humaner Immunantworten in vivo und deren Modulation durch humanspezifische Therapeutika wurden humanisierte Mausmodelle etabliert. Der adoptive Transfer humaner Immunzellen in immundefiziente Mäuse erlaubte die Untersuchung von T-Lymphozyten, die aus dem Blut von MS-Patienten isoliert wurden. Es zeigte sich, dass Treg-resistente T-Effektorzellen aus den MS-Patienten in den Tieren eine letale Graft-versus-Host-Erkrankung auslösten, die nicht durch aktivierte Treg therapiert werden konnte. Erst eine Behandlung mit dem humanspezifischen anti-IL-6-Antikörper Tocilizumab in vivo konnte die Erkrankung der Tiere deutlich abmildern.rnIm zweiten Modell wurden immundefiziente Mäuse mit humanen CD34+ Blutstammzellen immunologisch rekonstituiert. Diese Tiere entwickelten ein nahezu vollständig humanes Immunsystem. Die Immunisierung mit dem murinen Myelin-Oligodenrozyten-Glykoprotein löste in den humanisierten Mäusen eine MS-ähnliche Autoimmunität aus. Die Neuroinflammation wurde durch humane T- und B-Zellen vermittelt, korrelierte mit erhöhter IL-17-Produktion und führte zu einer IL-6-abhängigen Treg-Resistenz der T-Effektorzellen. Somit eignen sich die etablierten Modelle, um zukünftig die Wirksamkeit neuer Therapeutika zur Behandlung der MS präklinisch zu testen.rn