Variação sazonal de clorofilas em folhas de Tabebuia avellanedae e Anadenanthera colubrina

The experiment had the aim of quantifying seasonal chlorophyll variation on leaves of Anadenanthera colubrina and Tabebuia avellanedae. The experiment used a randomized block design established as a 2 x 3 factorial (two species and three sampling seasons) with 5 replications. The concentrations of chlorophyll in leaves were performed at the end of winter, late spring, and summer. The content of chlorophyll a changed only for A. colubrina, bringing up from spring (117.52 mu g mL(-1)) to summer (151.13 mu g mL(-1)). For the two species, the proportion of chlorophyll b was higher between periods at the end of spring (average of 29.31 mu g mL(-1)) to the end of summer (average of 74.96 mu g mL(-1)) with close relationship with the decrease in global solar irradiance. The chlorophyll a/b relationship increased in late spring due to reduction of chlorophyll b content. A. colubrina showed greater adaptation to the studied environment.

Indirect measurement of photosynthetic pigments in the leaves of Jatropha curcas

The aim of this work was to generate mathematical models capable of identifying photosynthetic pigments and soluble proteins from the leaves of Jatropha curcas using the relationship between classical readings performed by spectrophotometry and the chlorophyll meter, ClorofiLOG ® 1030. The work was conducted at Embrapa Cotton, in the city of Campina Grande, state of Paraíba, Brazil. For indirect analysis, portable equipment was used to read leaf discs at different stages of development. The chlorophyll in these discs was then determined using a classical method, while the Bradford method was used to determine soluble proteins. The data were subjected to analysis of variance and regression analyses, in which the readings obtained using the portable chlorophyll meter were the dependent variables and the photosynthetic pigments and soluble protein determined by the classical method the independents variables. The results indicated that with the exception of chlorophyll b and soluble protein, the mathematical models obtained with the portable chlorophyll ClorofiLOG ® 1030 can be used to estimate the concentration of photosynthetic pigments with high precision, thus saving time and the chemical reagents required for conventional procedures.

Validação das unidades arbitrárias de teor de clorofilas obtido em folhas intactas de seringueira

The determination of foliar chlorophyll content is a characteristic that interests ecophysiologists and rural producers. With consideration for practical uses as well as scientific publications, our present work aims to establish equations, for rubber tree leaves, that can convert arbitrary units of expressing chlorophyll content to the international system. Chlorophyll a (Chla), chlorophyll b (Chlb), and total chlorophyll (Chltot) were obtained from intact leaves using a portable chlorophyll detecting instrument. Leaves from different positions on the plant, at various stages of maturity, and representing a large spectrum of pigment concentrations, were collected and analyzed in the field using the Clorofil OG Falkner ® instrument, through four evaluations in forty-five medium leaflets. At the laboratory, leaflets underwent a process of pigment extraction. They were incubated in a water-bath with dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO), dosed in molecular absorption spectrophotometer, and converted into pigment content per unit of fresh weight using conventional equations. The data were evaluated according to the Pearson correlation coefficient and tested with different regression models. For all variables, the linear fit is the most adequate, with correlation coefficients (r) 0.74 for Chlb and 0.88 for Chla and Chltott.

Validação das unidades arbitrárias do teor de clorofilas obtido em folhas intactas de seringueira

The determination of foliar chlorophyll content is a characteristic that interests ecophysiologists and rural producers. With consideration for practical uses as well as scientific publications, our present work aims to establish equations, for rubber tree leaves, that can convert arbitrary units of expressing chlorophyll content to the international system. Chlorophyll a (Chla), chlorophyll b (Chlb), and total chlorophyll (Chltot) were obtained from intact leaves using a portable chlorophyll detecting instrument. Leaves from different positions on the plant, at various stages of maturity, and representing a large spectrum of pigment concentrations, were collected and analyzed in the field using the Clorofil OG Falkner ® instrument, through four evaluations in forty-five medium leaflets. At the laboratory, leaflets underwent a process of pigment extraction. They were incubated in a water-bath with dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO), dosed in molecular absorption spectrophotometer, and converted into pigment content per unit of fresh weight using conventional equations. The data were evaluated according to the Pearson correlation coefficient and tested with different regression models. For all variables, the linear fit is the most adequate, with correlation coefficients (r) 0.74 for Chlb and 0.88 for Chla and Chltott .

Light energy management in peach: utilization, photoprotection , photodamage and recovery. Maximizing light absorption in orchard is not always the best solution

The relation between the intercepted light and orchard productivity was considered linear, although this dependence seems to be more subordinate to planting system rather than light intensity. At whole plant level not always the increase of irradiance determines productivity improvement. One of the reasons can be the plant intrinsic un-efficiency in using energy. Generally in full light only the 5 – 10% of the total incoming energy is allocated to net photosynthesis. Therefore preserving or improving this efficiency becomes pivotal for scientist and fruit growers. Even tough a conspicuous energy amount is reflected or transmitted, plants can not avoid to absorb photons in excess. The chlorophyll over-excitation promotes the reactive species production increasing the photoinhibition risks. The dangerous consequences of photoinhibition forced plants to evolve a complex and multilevel machine able to dissipate the energy excess quenching heat (Non Photochemical Quenching), moving electrons (water-water cycle , cyclic transport around PSI, glutathione-ascorbate cycle and photorespiration) and scavenging the generated reactive species. The price plants must pay for this equipment is the use of CO2 and reducing power with a consequent decrease of the photosynthetic efficiency, both because some photons are not used for carboxylation and an effective CO2 and reducing power loss occurs. Net photosynthesis increases with light until the saturation point, additional PPFD doesn’t improve carboxylation but it rises the efficiency of the alternative pathways in energy dissipation but also ROS production and photoinhibition risks. The wide photo-protective apparatus, although is not able to cope with the excessive incoming energy, therefore photodamage occurs. Each event increasing the photon pressure and/or decreasing the efficiency of the described photo-protective mechanisms (i.e. thermal stress, water and nutritional deficiency) can emphasize the photoinhibition. Likely in nature a small amount of not damaged photosystems is found because of the effective, efficient and energy consuming recovery system. Since the damaged PSII is quickly repaired with energy expense, it would be interesting to investigate how much PSII recovery costs to plant productivity. This PhD. dissertation purposes to improve the knowledge about the several strategies accomplished for managing the incoming energy and the light excess implication on photo-damage in peach. The thesis is organized in three scientific units. In the first section a new rapid, non-intrusive, whole tissue and universal technique for functional PSII determination was implemented and validated on different kinds of plants as C3 and C4 species, woody and herbaceous plants, wild type and Chlorophyll b-less mutant and monocot and dicot plants. In the second unit, using a “singular” experimental orchard named “Asymmetric orchard”, the relation between light environment and photosynthetic performance, water use and photoinhibition was investigated in peach at whole plant level, furthermore the effect of photon pressure variation on energy management was considered on single leaf. In the third section the quenching analysis method suggested by Kornyeyev and Hendrickson (2007) was validate on peach. Afterwards it was applied in the field where the influence of moderate light and water reduction on peach photosynthetic performances, water requirements, energy management and photoinhibition was studied. Using solar energy as fuel for life plant is intrinsically suicidal since the high constant photodamage risk. This dissertation would try to highlight the complex relation existing between plant, in particular peach, and light analysing the principal strategies plants developed to manage the incoming light for deriving the maximal benefits as possible minimizing the risks. In the first instance the new method proposed for functional PSII determination based on P700 redox kinetics seems to be a valid, non intrusive, universal and field-applicable technique, even because it is able to measure in deep the whole leaf tissue rather than the first leaf layers as fluorescence. Fluorescence Fv/Fm parameter gives a good estimate of functional PSII but only when data obtained by ad-axial and ab-axial leaf surface are averaged. In addition to this method the energy quenching analysis proposed by Kornyeyev and Hendrickson (2007), combined with the photosynthesis model proposed by von Caemmerer (2000) is a forceful tool to analyse and study, even in the field, the relation between plant and environmental factors such as water, temperature but first of all light. “Asymmetric” training system is a good way to study light energy, photosynthetic performance and water use relations in the field. At whole plant level net carboxylation increases with PPFD reaching a saturating point. Light excess rather than improve photosynthesis may emphasize water and thermal stress leading to stomatal limitation. Furthermore too much light does not promote net carboxylation improvement but PSII damage, in fact in the most light exposed plants about 50-60% of the total PSII is inactivated. At single leaf level, net carboxylation increases till saturation point (1000 – 1200 μmolm-2s-1) and light excess is dissipated by non photochemical quenching and non net carboxylative transports. The latter follows a quite similar pattern of Pn/PPFD curve reaching the saturation point at almost the same photon flux density. At middle-low irradiance NPQ seems to be lumen pH limited because the incoming photon pressure is not enough to generate the optimum lumen pH for violaxanthin de-epoxidase (VDE) full activation. Peach leaves try to cope with the light excess increasing the non net carboxylative transports. While PPFD rises the xanthophyll cycle is more and more activated and the rate of non net carboxylative transports is reduced. Some of these alternative transports, such as the water-water cycle, the cyclic transport around the PSI and the glutathione-ascorbate cycle are able to generate additional H+ in lumen in order to support the VDE activation when light can be limiting. Moreover the alternative transports seems to be involved as an important dissipative way when high temperature and sub-optimal conductance emphasize the photoinhibition risks. In peach, a moderate water and light reduction does not determine net carboxylation decrease but, diminishing the incoming light and the environmental evapo-transpiration request, stomatal conductance decreases, improving water use efficiency. Therefore lowering light intensity till not limiting levels, water could be saved not compromising net photosynthesis. The quenching analysis is able to partition absorbed energy in the several utilization, photoprotection and photo-oxidation pathways. When recovery is permitted only few PSII remained un-repaired, although more net PSII damage is recorded in plants placed in full light. Even in this experiment, in over saturating light the main dissipation pathway is the non photochemical quenching; at middle-low irradiance it seems to be pH limited and other transports, such as photorespiration and alternative transports, are used to support photoprotection and to contribute for creating the optimal trans-thylakoidal ΔpH for violaxanthin de-epoxidase. These alternative pathways become the main quenching mechanisms at very low light environment. Another aspect pointed out by this study is the role of NPQ as dissipative pathway when conductance becomes severely limiting. The evidence that in nature a small amount of damaged PSII is seen indicates the presence of an effective and efficient recovery mechanism that masks the real photodamage occurring during the day. At single leaf level, when repair is not allowed leaves in full light are two fold more photoinhibited than the shaded ones. Therefore light in excess of the photosynthetic optima does not promote net carboxylation but increases water loss and PSII damage. The more is photoinhibition the more must be the photosystems to be repaired and consequently the energy and dry matter to allocate in this essential activity. Since above the saturation point net photosynthesis is constant while photoinhibition increases it would be interesting to investigate how photodamage costs in terms of tree productivity. An other aspect of pivotal importance to be further widened is the combined influence of light and other environmental parameters, like water status, temperature and nutrition on peach light, water and phtosyntate management.

Untersuchung der Struktur und Assemblierung des Lichtsammelkomplexes II höherer Pflanzen mittels elektronenparamagnetischer Resonanz (EPR)

Der Haupt-Lichtsammelkomplex (LHCII) des Photosyntheseapparates höherer Pflanzen gehört zu den häufigsten Membranproteinen der Erde. Seine Kristallstruktur ist bekannt. Das Apoprotein kann rekombinant in Escherichia coli überexprimiert und somit molekularbiologisch vielfältig verändert werden. In Detergenzlösung besitzt das denaturierte Protein die erstaunliche Fähigkeit, sich spontan zu funktionalen Protein-Pigment-Komplexen zu organisieren, welche strukturell nahezu identisch sind mit nativem LHCII. Der Faltungsprozess findet in vitro im Zeitbereich von Sekunden bis Minuten statt und ist abhängig von der Bindung der Cofaktoren Chlorophyll a und b sowie verschiedenen Carotinoiden.rn Diese Eigenschaften machen LHCII besonders geeignet für Strukturuntersuchungen mittels der elektronenparamagnetischen Resonanz (EPR)-Spektrokopie. Diese setzt eine punktspezifische Spinmarkierung des LHCII voraus, die in dieser Arbeit zunächst optimiert wurde. Einschließlich der Beiträge Anderer stand eine breite Auswahl von über 40 spinmarkierten Mutanten des LHCII bereit, einen N-terminalen „Cys walk“ eingeschlossen. Weder der hierfür notwendige Austausch einzelner Aminosäuren noch die Anknüpfung des Spinmarkers beeinträchtigten die Funktion des LHCII. Zudem konnte ein Protokoll zur Präparation heterogen spinmarkierter LHCII-Trimere entwickelt werden, also von Trimeren, die jeweils nur ein Monomer mit einer Spinmarkierung enthalten.rn Spinmarkierte Proben des Detergenz-solubilisierten LHCII wurden unter Verwendung verschiedener EPR-Techniken strukturell analysiert. Als besonders aussagekräftig erwies sich die Messung der Wasserzugänglichkeit einzelner Aminosäurepositionen anhand der Electron Spin Echo Envelope Modulation (ESEEM). In Kombination mit der etablierten Double Electron-Electron Resonance (DEER)-Technik zur Detektion von Abständen zwischen zwei Spinmarkern wurde der membranständige Kernbereich des LHCII in Lösung eingehend untersucht und strukturell der Kristallstruktur für sehr ähnlich befunden. Die Vermessung kristallographisch nicht erfasster Bereiche nahe dem N-Terminus offenbarte die schon früher detektierte Strukturdynamik der Domäne in Abhängigkeit des Oligomerisierungsgrades. Der neue, noch zu vervollständigende Datensatz aus Abstandsverteilungen und ESEEM-Wasserzugänglichkeiten monomerer wie trimerer Proben sollte in naher Zukunft die sehr genaue Modellierung der N-terminalen Domäne des LHCII ermöglichen.rn In einem weiteren Abschnitt der Arbeit wurde die Faltung des LHCII-Apoproteins bei der LHCII-Assemblierung in vitro untersucht. Vorausgegangene fluoreszenzspektroskopi-sche Arbeiten hatten gezeigt, dass die Bindung von Chlorophyll a und b in aufeinanderfolgenden Schritten im Zeitbereich von weniger als einer Minute bzw. mehreren Minuten erfolgten. Sowohl die Wasserzugänglichkeit einzelner Aminosäurepositionen als auch Spin-Spin-Abstände änderten sich in ähnlichen Zeitbereichen. Die Daten deuten darauf hin, dass die Ausbildung der mittleren Transmembran-Helix mit der schnelleren Chlorophyll-a-Bindung einhergeht, während sich die Superhelix aus den beiden anderen Transmembranhelices erst im langsameren Schritt, zusammen mit der Chlorophyll-b-Bindung, ausbildet.rn

Lichtsammler hinter Glas : Stabilisierung und Funktionalisierung des pflanzlichen Hauptlichtsammelkomplexes (LHCII) durch biomineralische Einbettung in Nanopartikel

Der Haupt-Lichtsammelkomplex des Fotosystems II (LHCII) setzt sich aus einem Proteinanteil und nicht-kovalent gebundenen Pigmenten – 8 Chlorophyll a, 6 Chlorophyll b und 4 Carotinoide - zusammen. Er assembliert in vivo zu einem Trimer, in dem die Monomereinheiten ebenfalls nicht-kovalent miteinander wechselwirken. Die ausgesprochen hohe Farbstoffdichte und die Tatsache, dass der Komplex rekombinant hergestellt werden kann, machen den LHCII zu einem interessanten Kandidaten für technische Anwendungen wie einer Farbstoffsolarzelle. Allerdings muss hierzu seine thermische Stabilität drastisch erhöht werden.rnDer Einschluss von Proteinen/Enzymen in Silikat erhöht deren Stabilität gegenüber Hitze signifikant. LHCII sollte als erster rekombinanter Membranproteinkomplex mittels kovalent verbundener, polykationischen Sequenzen in Silikat eingeschlossen werden. Hierzu wurde der Komplex auf zwei Weisen polykationisch modifiziert: Auf Genebene wurde die Sequenz des R5-Peptids in den N-terminalen Bereich des LHCP-Gens eingeführt und ein Protokoll zur Überexpression, Rekonstitution und Trimerisierung etabliert. Außerdem wurde eine kovalente Modifikation des trimeren LHCII mit dem Arginin-reichen Protamin über heterobifunktionelle Crosslinker entwickelt. Beide resultierenden LHCII-Derivate waren in der Lage, Silikat autogen zu fällen. Die Stabilisierung der so in Silikat präzipitierten Komplexe war jedoch deutlich geringer als bei nicht-modifizierten Komplexen, die durch eine Spermin-induzierte Copräzipitation eingeschlossenen wurden. Dabei zeigte sich, dass für den Anteil der eingebauten Komplexe und das Ausmaß an Stabilisierung die Größe und klare partikuläre Struktur des Silikats entscheidend ist. Kleine Partikel mit einem Durchmesser von etwa 20 nm führten zu einem Einbau von rund 75 % der Komplexe, und mehr als 80 % des Energietransfers innerhalb des Komplexes blieben erhalten, wenn für 24 Stunden bei 50°C inkubiert wurde. Nicht in Silikat eingeschlossene Komplexe verloren bei 50°C ihren Komplex-internen Energietransfer binnen weniger Minuten. Es war dabei unerheblich, ob die Partikelgröße durch die Wahl des Puffers und des entsprechenden pH-Wertes, oder aber durch Variation des Spermin-zu-Kieselsäure-Verhältnisses erreicht wurde. Wurden die polykationisch veränderten Komplexe in solchen Copräzipitationen verwendet, so erhöhte sich der Anteil an eingebauten Komplexen auf über 90 %, jedoch wurde nur bei der R5-modifizierten Variante vergleichbare Ausmaße an Stabilisierung erreicht. Ein noch höherer Anteil an Komplexen wurde in das Silikatpellet eingebaut, wenn LHCII kovalent mit Silanolgruppen modifiziert wurde (95 %); jedoch war das Ausmaß der Stabilisierung wiederum geringer als bei einer Copräzipitation. Die analysierten Fällungssysteme waren außerdem in der Lage, Titandioxid zu fällen, wobei der Komplex in dieses eingebaut wurde. Allerdings muss das Stabilisierungspotential hier noch untersucht werden. Innerhalb eines Silikatpräzipitats aggregierten die Komplexe nicht, zeigten aber einen inter-trimeren Energietransfer, der sehr wahrscheinlich auf einem Förster Resonanz Mechanismus basiert. rnDies und das hohe Maß an Stabilisierung eröffnen neue Möglichkeiten, rekombinanten LHCII in technischen Applikationen als Lichtsammelkomponente zu verwenden.rn

Oceanography during TYDEMAN cruise DCM (DeepChlorMax) to the Equatorial Atlantic

The cruise with RV Tydeman was devoted to study permanently stratified plankton systems in the (sub)tropical ocean, which are characterised by a deep chlorophyll peak between 80 and 150 m. To minimise lateral effects by horizontal transport of nutrients and organic matter from river outflow and upwelling regions, stations were selected in the middle of the North Atlantic Ocean between the continents of America and Africa. (5 - 35° N and 50 - 15° W). Here the vertical distributions of light and nutrients control the abundance and growth of autotrophic algae in the thermically stratified water column. This phytoplankton is numerically dominated by the prokaryotic picoplankters Synechococcus spp. and Prochlorococcus spp., which are smaller than 2 ?m. The productivity of the 100 to 150 m deep euphotic zone can be high, because a high heterotrophic/autotrophic biomass ratio induces a rapid regeneration of nutrients and inorganic carbon. Primary grazers are mainly micro-organisms such as heterotrophic nannoflagellates and ciliates, which feed on the small algae and on bacteria. Heterotrophic bacteria can outnumber the autotrophic algae, because their number is related to the substrate pools of dissolved and particulate dead organic matter. These DOC and detritus pools reach equilibrium at a concentration, where the rate of their production (proportional to algal biomass) equals their mineralisation and sinking rate (proportional to the concentration and weight of POC and detritus). At a relatively low value of the weight-specific loss rates, the equilibrium concentration of these carbon pools and their load of bacteria can be high. The bacterial productivity is proportional to the mineralisation rate, which in a steady state can never be higher than the rate of primary production. Hence the ratio in turnover rate of bacteria and autotrophs tends to be reciprocally proportional to their biomass ratio.