Horizontal projections of area 17 in Cebus monkeys: metric features, and modular and laminar distribution

Metric features and modular and laminar distributions of intrinsic projections of area 17 were studied in Cebus apella. Anterogradely and retrogradely labeled cell appendages were obtained using both saturated pellets and iontophoretic injections of biocytin into the operculum. Laminar and modular distributions of the labeled processes were analyzed using Nissl counterstaining, and/or cytochrome oxidase and/or NADPH-diaphorase histochemistry. We distinguished three labeled cell types: pyramidal, star pyramidal and stellate cells located in supragranular cortical layers (principally in layers IIIa, IIIb α, IIIb ß and IIIc). Three distinct axon terminal morphologies were found, i.e., Ia, Ib and II located in granular and supragranular layers. Both complete and partial segregation of group I axon terminals relative to the limits of the blobs of V1 were found. The results are compatible with recent evidence of incomplete segregation of visual information flow in V1 of Old and New World primates.

Desenvolvimento do dimorfismo sexual em espécies de macacos-prego, gênero Cebus Erxleben, 1777 (Primates, Cebidae)

Os trabalhos sobre dimorfismo sexual em Cebus disponíveis na literatura apontam Cebus apella como a espécie mais dimórfica do gênero. Contudo, vale ressaltar que diversas espécies de macacos-prego eram consideradas anteriormente subespécies de C. apella, sendo analisadas em conjunto nestes estudos. O arranjo taxonômico que segui neste estudo considera tais táxons como espécies válidas, com considerável grau de diferenciação morfológica. A maior parte destes estudos utilizou somente exemplares adultos, assumindo que os indivíduos cessariam seu crescimento assim que a sua dentição estivesse completa. A falta de estudos sobre idades anteriores à idade adulta pode resultar em um entendimento incompleto sobre a natureza do dimorfismo sexual, pois níveis similares deste dimorfismo podem ser gerados por diferentes processos ontogenéticos, refletindo causas evolutivas distintas. Com base nestas informações, os objetivos do presente estudo foram verificar as diferenças sexuais cranianas e no grau de desenvolvimento dos tufos do capuz da cabeça ao longo da ontogenia de seis espécies de macacos-prego, todas pertencentes ao subgênero Sapajus (Cebus apella, C. macrocephalus, C. libidinosus, C. cay, C. nigritus e C. robustus) e confrontar os resultados obtidos entre as espécies para constatar se existem diferenças interespecíficas. Para tanto, examinei 774 espécimes depositados em coleções científicas brasileiras. Mensurei 20 variáveis craniométricas, examinei 12 caracteres cranianos discretos e estabeleci quatro estados de caráter para o grau de desenvolvimento dos tufos do capuz. Avaliei o dimorfismo sexual através do teste t de Student com ajustamento de Bonferroni e empreguei Análise de Componentes Principais (ACP), seguida de Análise de Função Discriminante (AFD) para testar a significância dos agrupamentos etários (infantes, jovens, subadultos e adultos, sendo este último grupo dividido em AD1 e AD2 para C. apella). Os resultados mostraram que diferenças sexuais cranianas podem ser evidenciadas no subgênero Sapajus somente a partir da idade subadulta (aproximadamente 3,5 anos de idade), sendo o comprimento dos caninos a mais conspícua. Contudo, estas diferenças ainda não são estatisticamente significativas. Somente a partir da idade adulta (cerca de 5 anos de idade) a maior parte das variáveis cranianas passou a apresentar dimorfismo sexual significativo, com as espécies comportando-se de modo distinto em relação ao tipo e número de variáveis dimórficas. As espécies que apresentaram maior número de variáveis significativas foram C. apella e C. robustus (N=15), seguidas de C. nigritus (N=13), C. libidinosus (N=10), C. cay (N=7) e C. macrocephalus (N=3). Estudos anteriores apontam que o dimorfismo sexual craniano em Cebus (Sapajus) surge em indivíduos jovens (cerca de 27 meses de idade). Os resultados obtidos neste estudo não corroboram esta idéia, pois demonstram que o dimorfismo sexual significativo surge apenas em indivíduos adultos. Tais resultados ainda sugerem que o processo heterocrônico da taxa de hipermorfose representa o principal fator para o padrão ontogenético de dimorfismo sexual craniano exibido. A despeito do dimorfismo sexual craniano, as espécies de macacos-prego diferem entre si em relação ao grau de desenvolvimento dos tufos do capuz. Constatei que o desenvolvimento dos tufos do capuz em Cebus (Sapajus) está diretamente relacionado à idade, não existindo dimorfismo sexual quanto ao grau de desenvolvimento desta estrutura em C. cay, C. robustus e C. nigritus. Em contrapartida, parece existir dimorfismo sexual negativo em relação ao desenvolvimento dos tufos em C. libidinosus, fato que carece de maiores investigações. Por fim, os resultados deste estudo sugerem que as espécies de macacos-prego podem ter experimentado diferentes graus e/ou tipos de pressões seletivas quanto ao dimorfismo sexual ao longo de sua história evolutiva.

Comparação de dois procedimentos computadorizados para avaliação de discriminação de cores em Cebus sp

A visão de cores consiste na discriminação de objetos com base em sua composição espectral, auxiliando na interação organismo-ambiente. Dentre os primatas, estima-se que a dicromacia seja uma característica compartilhada pela maioria das espécies platirrinas, sendo esta condição polimórfica e ligada ao sexo. O objetivo deste estudo foi comparar os resultados produzidos por equipamentos e softwares distintos para avaliar a tri/dicromacia em dois machos e duas fêmeas da espécie Cebus sp. Foram utilizados dois programas computadorizados: um envolvendo uma versão adaptada do Cambridge Colour Test e outro desenvolvido para o uso em sistema computacional padrão. Nos Experimentos 1 e 2 foi possível averiguar a condição tricromata de uma participante e dicromata dos participantes restantes. No Experimento 3, uma participante fêmea e um macho apresentaram desempenho dicromata compatível com o registrado nos experimentos anteriores. Neste mesmo experimento, uma participante fêmea apresentou desempenho tricromata compatível com o registrado nos experimentos anteriores. Concluiu-se com este estudo que condições favoráveis para a avaliação de visão de cores em primatas platirrinos podem ser edificadas envolvendo equipamento e software de baixo custo financeiro e de fácil programação. Entretanto, devido ao pequeno número de sessões realizadas com o equipamento de baixo custo, sugere-se a replicação do Experimento 3 e a realização de novas sessões com maior número de participantes e envolvendo novos arranjos de estímulos. Acredita-se que se novos dados corroborarem os produzidos aqui, este procedimento e equipamento poderá ser utilizado para avaliação de outras espécies platirrinas onde dados comportamentais são escassos.

Efeito de diferentes histórias de treino sobre a ocorrência de "insight" em macacos-prego (Cebus spp.)

A origem de comportamentos criativos é em grande medida pouco conhecida cientificamente. Aparentemente, trata-se de um fenômeno multifacetado que comporta muitos processos distintos. Um desses processos seria a resolução de problemas conhecida como “insight”. Tal processo pode ser explicado como resultado de uma interconexão espontânea de repertórios comportamentais previamente aprendidos. A presente pesquisa teve por objetivo produzir diferentes desempenhos de “insight”, em macacos-prego (Cebus spp.) dando-lhes diferentes histórias de treino. Em especial, pretendeu-se testar o papel da quantidade de treino de cada repertório pré-requisito. Seis sujeitos foram divididos em dois grupos de três sujeitos cada. As habilidades pré-requisitos para a resolução da tarefa foram: 1) juntar objetos (“encaixar”); e, 2) puxar uma caixa contendo alimento usando uma vareta (“pescar”). Todos os sujeitos passaram pelo treino das duas habilidades, sendo que um grupo (GS) passou por um treino simétrico (mesma quantidade de sessões) entre as duas habilidades, com critérios de aprendizagem elevados para ambas. O outro grupo (GA) passou por um treino assimétrico, no qual uma habilidade, a de encaixe, foi treinada em poucas sessões e com um baixo critério de aprendizagem. Neste grupo a habilidade de pescar teve um treino extenso, com um número de sessões de treino pelo menos duas vezes maior do que o treino da habilidade de encaixe, e um critério elevado de aprendizagem. Ao final, todos os sujeitos foram colocados frente a uma situação problema: uma caixa contendo comida fora de seu alcance, e duas ferramentas disponíveis, das quais nenhuma sozinha alcançava a caixa. Nesta situação a solução dependia da recombinação dos dois repertórios ensinados separadamente, encaixar e pescar. Apenas o terceiro participante do grupo assimétrico não resolveu a tarefa. Todos os demais participantes resolveram a tarefa consistentemente, apresentando topografias de resolução do problema de acordo com o seu treino, apontando que variáveis de quantidade de treino influenciam na forma e eficácia da resolução da tarefa.

Morfologia radicular da dentição permanente de Sapajus apella: morfometria, anatomia macroscópica, ultraestrutura e propriedades físicas

O objetivo desse trabalho foi contribuir com o estudo anatômico, morfométrico, ultraestrutural e propriedades físicas dos dentes permanentes do primata Sapajus apella. Para tal, foram utilizados 10 animais adultos e machos. Os dentes foram avaliados quanto ao seu comprimento e quanto à anatomia radicular externa e interna considerando número de raízes e canais, forma e direção radicular e forma do canal, assim como análise da densidade e diâmetro tubular do canal radicular, composição e microdureza dentinária. A anatomia radicular desse primata apresentou especificidades, como o número de raízes do segundo pré-molar superior e a presença do terceiro pré-molar. Quanto à densidade e o diâmetro dos túbulos dentinários, observou-se uma diminuição do número e diâmetro de túbulos ao longo do canal radicular, havendo diferença estatisticamente significante ao se comparar o terço apical com as regiões cervical e média, padrão de densidade e tamanho semelhantes a dentes humanos. Semelhanças também foram encontradas com dentes humanos quando comparados os valores de microdureza e proporção de elementos químicos encontrados na dentina radicular.

Chemical characterization of oligosaccharides in the milk of six species of New and Old World monkeys.

Human and great ape milks contain a diverse array of milk oligosaccharides, but little is known about the milk oligosaccharides of other primates, and how they differ among taxa. Neutral and acidic oligosaccharides were isolated from the milk of three species of Old World or catarrhine monkeys (Cercopithecidae: rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta), toque macaque (Macaca sinica) and Hamadryas baboon (Papio hamadryas)) and three of New World or platyrrhine monkeys (Cebidae: tufted capuchin (Cebus apella) and Bolivian squirrel monkey (Saimiri boliviensis); Atelidae: mantled howler (Alouatta palliata)). The milks of these species contained 6-8% total sugar, most of which was lactose: the estimated ratio of oligosaccharides to lactose in Old World monkeys (1:4 to 1:6) was greater than in New World monkeys (1:12 to 1:23). The chemical structures of the oligosaccharides were determined mainly by (1)H-NMR spectroscopy. Oligosaccharides containing the type II unit (Gal(β1-4)GlcNAc) were found in the milk of the rhesus macaque, toque macaque, Hamadryas baboon and tufted capuchin, but oligosaccharides containing the type I unit (Gal(β1-3)GlcNAc), which have been found in human and many great ape milks, were absent from the milk of all species studied. Oligosaccharides containing Lewis x (Gal(β1-4)[Fuc(α1-3)]GlcNAc) and 3-fucosyl lactose (3-FL, Gal(β1-4)[Fuc(α1-3)]Glc) were found in the milk of the three cercopithecid monkey species, while 2-fucosyl lactose (5'-FL, Fuc(α1-2)Gal(β1-4)Glc) was absent from all species studied. All of these milks contained acidic oligosaccharides that had N-acetylneuraminic acid as part of their structures, but did not contain oligosaccharides that had N-glycolylneuraminic acid, in contrast to the milk or colostrum of great apes which contain both types of acidic oligosaccharides. Two GalNAc-containing oligosaccharides, lactose 3'-O-sulfate and lacto-N-novopentaose I (Gal(β1-3)[Gal(β1-4)GlcNAc(β1-6)]Gal(β1-4)Glc) were found only in the milk of rhesus macaque, hamadryas baboon and tufted capuchin, respectively. Further research is needed to determine the extent to which the milk oligosaccharide patterns observed among these taxa represent wider phylogenetic trends among primates and how much variation occurs among individuals or species.

Caractérisation pharmacologique et moléculaire des dyskinésies tardives chez un modèle de primate non humain

Les dyskinésies tardives (DT) sont des troubles moteurs associés à l’utilisation chronique des antagonistes des récepteurs dopaminergiques D2 tels que les antipsychotiques et le métoclopramide. Ces dyskinésies correspondent à une incoordination motrice portant préférentiellement sur la musculature oro-faciale. La gestion des DT s'est imposée comme défi de santé publique surtout en l’absence d’une alternative thérapeutique efficace et abordable. L’hypothèse classiquement avancée pour expliquer la physiopathologie des DT inhérente au traitement par les antipsychotiques s’articule autour de l’hypersensibilité des récepteurs dopaminergiques D2, cibles principales de ces molécules. Néanmoins, plusieurs données remettent la véracité de cette hypothèse en question. Hypothèse: nous proposons que le blocage chronique des récepteurs dopaminergiques soit effectivement responsable d’un phénomène d’hypersensibilisation mais contrairement à l’hypothèse classique, cette hypersensibilisation porterait sur des paramètres de la transmission dopaminergique autres que les récepteurs D2. De même nous postulons que cette hypersensibilisation se traduirait par des altérations des cascades signalétiques au niveau des cellules du striatum. Ces altérations aboutissent à des changements portant sur le récepteur nucléaire (Nur77), qui est hautement associé au système dopaminergique; l’induction de ces récepteurs déclencherait des cascades associées à la compensation ou à la genèse des DT. Matériels et méthodes: 23 femelles Cebus apella, réparties en 3 groupes: groupe halopéridol, groupe clozapine, et groupe contrôle, ont été exposées aux traitements respectifs pendant 6-36 mois. Après l’analyse comportementale, les animaux ont été décapités et leurs cerveaux isolés pour fin d’analyse. Hybridation in situ: nous avons fait appel à cette technique pour mesurer l’expression de l’ARNm de Nur77 et du neuropeptide enképhaline. Hybridation in situ double: nous avons exploités cette technique pour identifier les populations neuronales exprimant les récepteurs dopaminergiques D3 et localiser leur éventuelle induction. Autoradiographies des récepteurs dopaminergiques D1, D2 et D3 et autoradiographies des récepteurs i glutamatergiques mGluR5. Ces autoradiographies avaient pour objectif d’évaluer l’expression de ces différents récepteurs. Mutagenèse dirigée et transfection cellulaire: nous faisons appel à ces techniques pour reproduire le polymorphisme identifié au niveau de la région 3’UTR de l’ARNm Nur77 et évaluer l’impact que pourrait avoir ce polymorphisme sur la stabilité de l’ARNm Nur77 sinon sur l’expression de la protèine Nur77. Western Blot des kinases ERK 1 et 2: cette technique nous a servi comme moyen pour quantifier l’expression globale de ces kinases. Analyses statistiques: l’expression de l’ARNm Nur77 a été évaluée en utilisant l’analyse de la variance à un seul facteur (One way ANOVA). Nous avons procédé de la même façon pour mesurer l’expression des récepteurs D2, D3 et mGluR5. Résultats: le groupe des animaux traités par l’halopéridol montre une plus forte expression des récepteurs D3 par rapport aux sujets des autres groupes. Cette expression se produit au niveau des neurones de la voie directe. De plus, cette augmentation corrèle positivement avec la sévérité des DT. L’expression des récepteurs D2 et mGluR5 reste relativement inchangée entre les différents groupes, alors qu’un gradient d’expression a été observé pour le récepteur D1. Par ailleurs, Nur77 est induit par l’halopéridol, alors que son expression semble baisser chez les animaux traités par la clozapine. L’induction de l’expression de Nur77 par l’halopéridol est plus accrue chez les animaux non dyskinétiques. Les animaux traités par la clozapine démontrent une expression amoindrie de l’ARNm de Nur77 qui tend à être plus faible que l’expression de base. D’autre part, la présence du polymorphisme au niveau de la région 3’UTR semble affecter l’expression cellulaire de Nur77. Conclusion: ces résultats confortent notre hypothèse concernant l’existence d’un phénomène d’hypersensibilisation prenant place suite un traitement chronique par les antipsychotiques. Ce phénomène s’est traduit par une augmentation de l’expression des récepteurs D3 sans porter sur les récepteurs D2 tel que prôné classiquement. Cette hypersensibilisation des récepteurs D3 implique également l’existence d’un débalancement des voies striatales pouvant ainsi sous tendre l’apparition des DT. Ces résultats dévoilent ainsi un nouveau mécanisme qui pourrait contribuer à l’apparition des DT et pourraient permettre une meilleure gestion, nous l’espérons, des DT à l’échelle clinique.

Origine des projections sensorimotrices dans des sous-régions du cortex moteur primaire chez le singe capucin.

Certaines études ont démontrés que les connexions entre l’aire prémotrice ventrale (PMv) et la région de la main du cortex moteur primaire (M1) sont distribuées non-uniformément, ciblant des sous-régions spécifiques dans M1. Dans la présente étude nous avons voulu développer ces résultats en étudiant la distribution au sein de M1 des projections corticales issues de PMv, l’aire prémotrice dorsale (PMd), l’aire motrice supplémentaire (SMA) et les aires pariétales 1, 2 et 5. Pour se faire, nous avons combiné des approches électrophysiologiques et anatomiques chez trois singes naïfs du Nouveau Monde (Cebus apella) pour examiner l’organisation et la spécificité topographique des projections corticales dans M1. Nos résultats indiquent que quatre sous-régions à l’intérieur de la région dédiée à la main reçoivent des inputs prédominants de différentes aires sensorimotrices. Ces résultats suggèrent que des sous-régions de M1 puissent avoir des fonctions spécifiques pour le contrôle moteur de la main et des doigts.

Histological Outcomes on the Development of New Space-making Devices for Maxillary Sinus Floor Augmentation

Background: Previous studies have pointed out that the mere elevation of the maxillary sinus membrane promotes bone formation without the use of augmentation materials. Purpose: This experimental study aimed at evaluating if the two-stage procedure for sinus floor augmentation could benefit from the use of a space-making device in order to increase the bone volume to enable later implant installation with good primary stability. Materials and Methods: Six male tufted capuchin primates (Cebus apella) were subjected to extraction of the three premolars and the first molar on both sides of the maxilla to create an edentulous area. The sinuses were opened using the lateral bone-wall window technique, and the membrane was elevated. One resorbable space-making device was inserted in each maxillary sinus, and the bone window was returned in place. The animals were euthanatized after 6 months, and biopsy blocks containing the whole maxillary sinus and surrounding soft tissues were prepared for ground sections. Results: The histological examination of the specimens showed bone formation in contact with both the schneiderian membrane and the device in most cases even when the device was displaced. The process of bone formation indicates that this technique is potentially useful for two-stage sinus floor augmentation. The lack of stabilization of the device within the sinus demands further improvement of space-makers for predictable bone augmentation. Conclusions: It is concluded that (1) the device used in this study did not trigger any important inflammatory reaction; (2) when the sinus membrane was elevated, bone formation was a constant finding; and (3) an ideal space-making device should be stable and elevate the membrane to ensure a maintained connection between the membrane and the secluded space.

Natural Plasmodium infections in Brazilian wild monkeys: Reservoirs for human infections?

Four hundred and forty-eight samples of total blood from wild monkeys living in areas where human autochthonous malaria cases have been reported were screened for the presence of Plasmodium using microscopy and PCR analysis. Samples came from the following distinct ecological areas of Brazil: Atlantic forest (N = 140), semideciduous Atlantic forest (N = 257) and Cerrado (a savannah-like habitat) (N = 51). Thick and thin blood smears of each specimen were examined and Plasmodium infection was screened by multiplex polymerase chain reaction (multiplex PCR). The frequency of Plasmodium infections detected by PCR in Alouatta guariba clamitans in the Sao Paulo Atlantic forest was 11.3% or 8/71 (5.6% for Plasmodium malariae and 5.6% for Plasmodium vivax) and one specimen was positive for Plasmodium falciparum (1.4%); Callithrix sp. (N = 30) and Cebus apella (N = 39) specimens were negative by PCR tests. Microscopy analysis was negative for all specimens from the Atlantic forest. The positivity rate for Alouatta caraya from semideciduous Atlantic forest was 6.8% (16/235) in the PCR tests (5.5, 0.8 and 0.4% for P. malariae, P. falciparum and P. vivax, respectively), while C apella specimens were negative. Parasitological examination of I he samples using thick smears revealed Plasmodium sp. infections in only seven specimens, which had few parasites (3.0%). Monkeys from the Cerrado (a savannah-like habitat) (42 specimens of A. caraya, 5 of Callithrix jacchus and 4 of C. apella) were negative in both tests. The parasitological prevalence of P. vivax and P. malariae in wild monkeys from Atlantic forest and semideciduous Atlantic forest and the finding of a positive result for P.falciparum in Alouatta from both types of forest support the hypothesis that monkeys belonging to this genus could be a potential reservoir. Furthermore, these findings raise the question of the relationship between simian and autochthonous human malaria in extra-Amazonian regions. (C) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

5-HT(1B) receptor in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus)

Serotonin (5-HT) is involved in the fine adjustments at several brain centers including the core of the mammal circadian timing system (CTS) and the hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). The SCN receives massive serotonergic projections from the midbrain raphe nuclei, whose inputs are described in rats as ramifying at its ventral portion overlapping the retinohypothalamic and geniculohypothalamic fibers. In the SCN, the 5-HT actions are reported as being primarily mediated by the 5-HT1 type receptor with noted emphasis for 5-HT(1B) subtype, supposedly modulating the retinal input in a presynaptic way. In this study in a New World primate species, the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus), we showed the 5-HT(1B) receptor distribution at the dorsal SCN concurrent with a distinctive location of 5-HT-immunoreactive fibers. This finding addresses to a new discussion on the regulation and synchronization of the circadian rhythms in recent primates. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Evaluation of dental pulp repair using low level laser therapy (688 nm and 785 nm) morphologic study in capuchin monkeys

The aim of this study was to evaluate the hypothesis that low-level laser therapy (LLLT) 688 nm and 785 nm accelerate dentin barrier formation and repair process after traumatic pulp exposure. The sample consisted of 45 premolars of capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) with pulp exposure Class V cavities. All premolars were treated with calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)(2)), divided in groups of 15 teeth each, and analyzed on 7(th), 25(th), and 60(th) day. Group GI - only Ca(OH)(2), GIF- laser 688 nm, and GIII - laser 785 nm. Laser beam was used in single and punctual dose with the parameters: continuous, 688 nm and 785 nm wavelength, tip`s area of 0.00785 cm(2), power 50 mW, application time 20 s, dose 255 J/cm(2), energy 2 J. Teeth were capped with Ca(OH)(2), Ca(OH)(2) cement and restored with amalgam. All groups presented pulp repair. On 25(th) day the thickness of the formed dentin barrier was different between the groups GI and GII (p < 0.05) and between groups GI and GIII (p < 0.01). On 60(th) day there was difference between GI and GIII (p < 0.01). It may be concluded that, LLLT 688 nm and 785 nm accelerated dentin barrier formation and consequently pulp repair process, with best results using infrared laser 785 nm. (c) 2009 by Astro Ltd. Published exclusively by WLLEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA

Distribution of potential suitable hammers and transport of hammer tools and nuts by wild capuchin monkeys

Selection and transport of objects to use as tools at a distant site are considered to reflect planning. Ancestral humans transported tools and tool-making materials as well as food items. Wild chimpanzees also transport selected hammer tools and nuts to anvil sites. To date, we had no other examples of selection and transport of stone tools among wild nonhuman primates. Wild bearded capuchins (Cebus libidinosus) in Boa Vista (Piaui, Brazil) routinely crack open palm nuts and other physically well-protected foods on level surfaces (anvils) using stones (hammers) as percussive tools. Here we present indirect evidence, obtained by a transect census, that stones suitable for use as hammers are rare (study 1) and behavioral evidence of hammer transport by twelve capuchins (study 2). To crack palm nuts, adults transported heavier and harder stones than to crack other less resistant food items. These findings show that wild capuchin monkeys selectively transport stones of appropriate size and hardness to use as hammers, thus exhibiting, like chimpanzees and humans, planning in tool-use activities.

Effects of visual contact with zoo visitors on black-capped capuchin welfare

Previous research has suggested that the presence of zoo visitors may be stressful for various primate species, and visual contact with visitors may be the sensory stimuli that mediate visitor effects. We studied a group of black-capped capuchins, Cebus apella, in a controlled experiment, randomly imposing two treatments: customised one-way vision screens on the exhibit viewing windows to reduce visual contact with visitors; and unmodified viewing windows that allow full visual contact with visitors. We sampled capuchin behaviour including intra-group aggression and other social interactions, vigilance and abnormal behaviours. To provide a measure of physiological stress, we also analysed capuchin faecal samples for glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) concentration. When the view of visitors was obscured, we found marked reductions in capuchin aggression (from 14.5 bouts to 4.6 bouts per weekend, P= 0.004) and FGM concentration (from 620 to 410. ng/g, P= 0.008) among all adults, as well as reductions in abnormal behaviour (P = 0.01) in two individuals. The capuchins also avoided the visitor viewing area (P = 0.003) in the unmodified viewing window treatment. These results suggest that reducing the capuchins' ability to view visitors improved their welfare. However we also found a reduction in the number of visitors when visual contact was reduced (from an average of 23 visitors per scan to 15, P = 0.008), suggesting that the visitor experience may have been compromised by the lack of interaction with the capuchins. These results highlight a possible dilemma for the zoo industry between enhancing animal welfare in primates and providing for visitor experience.

Uso de ferramentas por macacos-prego em manguezais

The present study discusses the geographical distribution and the context on the occupation of mangrove swamp areas by capuchin monkeys. In addition, we assess how the dispersion to the mangrove allowed the exploration of different food items, permitting the development of predation by ambush and the use of cracking tools. From 2004 to 2008 we surveyed the main estuaries of Brazilian Amazon coast, from northeastern state of Pará to the eastern boundary of the state of Maranhão, and recorded the presence of two species of capuchin monkeys in the mangrove forest areas. Cebus apella has been widely distributed in the mangrove at the estuaries examined (excluding C. libidinosus areas). Its presence is often related to Amazon forest remnants in the neighbourhood of the mangrove swamps and thus it is possible that some groups live in both kinds of habitats. However, we recorded some populations restricted only to mangrove swamp surrounded by open areas. On the other hand, Cebus libidinosus had a distribution more restricted and isolated in mangroves. Its pattern of habitat use is consistent with geographic distribution in mangrove patches. It seems that the possible contact zone previously proposed in the literature for that two species has no evident barriers in the mangrove. Furthermore, we record cracking sites and systematic observations on the tool use, carnivory and predation by ambush in Cebus libidinosus from 2006 to 2008. Cebus libidinosus is the only Neotropical primate species in which the tool use has been systematically recorded in nature. However all previous studies had been obtained is open areas (Cerrado and Caatinga). Thus, the present study is first one to report that behaviour in forested habitats in which the tool use to cracking by capuchin monkeys is associated with the consumption of meat. In the Caatinga and Cerrado, food shortages and terrestriality has been proposed by different authors to explain the evolution of tool use in primates. Here, we analyzed the relative contribution of these two variables as selective pressures for the tool use by capuchin monkeys in the mangrove forests, an ecological scenario in which food resources is available around the year and terrestriality is limited by structural habitat features, as the presence of stilt roots and muddy soil