The principle of least effort within the hierarchy of linguistic preferences: external evidence from English

The thesis is an investigation of the principle of least effort (Zipf 1949 [1972]). The principle is simple (all effort should be least) and universal (it governs the totality of human behavior). Since the principle is also functional, the thesis adopts a functional theory of language as its theoretical framework, i.e. Natural Linguistics. The explanatory system of Natural Linguistics posits that higher principles govern preferences, which, in turn, manifest themselves as concrete, specific processes in a given language. Therefore, the thesis’ aim is to investigate the principle of least effort on the basis of external evidence from English. The investigation falls into the three following strands: the investigation of the principle itself, the investigation of its application in articulatory effort and the investigation of its application in phonological processes. The structure of the thesis reflects the division of its broad aims. The first part of the thesis presents its theoretical background (Chapter One and Chapter Two), the second part of the thesis deals with application of least effort in articulatory effort (Chapter Three and Chapter Four), whereas the third part discusses the principle of least effort in phonological processes (Chapter Five and Chapter Six). Chapter One serves as an introduction, examining various aspects of the principle of least effort such as its history, literature, operation and motivation. It overviews various names which denote least effort, explains the origins of the principle and reviews the literature devoted to the principle of least effort in a chronological order. The chapter also discusses the nature and operation of the principle, providing numerous examples of the principle at work. It emphasizes the universal character of the principle from the linguistic field (low-level phonetic processes and language universals) and the non-linguistic ones (physics, biology, psychology and cognitive sciences), proving that the principle governs human behavior and choices. Chapter Two provides the theoretical background of the thesis in terms of its theoretical framework and discusses the terms used in the thesis’ title, i.e. hierarchy and preference. It justifies the selection of Natural Linguistics as the thesis’ theoretical framework by outlining its major assumptions and demonstrating its explanatory power. As far as the concepts of hierarchy and preference are concerned, the chapter provides their definitions and reviews their various understandings via decision theories and linguistic preference-based theories. Since the thesis investigates the principle of least effort in language and speech, Chapter Three considers the articulatory aspect of effort. It reviews the notion of easy and difficult sounds and discusses the concept of articulatory effort, overviewing its literature as well as various understandings in a chronological fashion. The chapter also presents the concept of articulatory gestures within the framework of Articulatory Phonology. The thesis’ aim is to investigate the principle of least effort on the basis of external evidence, therefore Chapters Four and Six provide evidence in terms of three experiments, text message studies (Chapter Four) and phonological processes in English (Chapter Six). Chapter Four contains evidence for the principle of least effort in articulation on the basis of experiments. It describes the experiments in terms of their predictions and methodology. In particular, it discusses the adopted measure of effort established by means of the effort parameters as well as their status. The statistical methods of the experiments are also clarified. The chapter reports on the results of the experiments, presenting them in a graphical way and discusses their relation to the tested predictions. Chapter Four establishes a hierarchy of speakers’ preferences with reference to articulatory effort (Figures 30, 31). The thesis investigates the principle of least effort in phonological processes, thus Chapter Five is devoted to the discussion of phonological processes in Natural Phonology. The chapter explains the general nature and motivation of processes as well as the development of processes in child language. It also discusses the organization of processes in terms of their typology as well as the order in which processes apply. The chapter characterizes the semantic properties of processes and overviews Luschützky’s (1997) contribution to NP with respect to processes in terms of their typology and incorporation of articulatory gestures in the concept of a process. Chapter Six investigates phonological processes. In particular, it identifies the issues of lenition/fortition definition and process typology by presenting the current approaches to process definitions and their typology. Since the chapter concludes that no coherent definition of lenition/fortition exists, it develops alternative lenition/fortition definitions. The chapter also revises the typology of phonological processes under effort management, which is an extended version of the principle of least effort. Chapter Seven concludes the thesis with a list of the concepts discussed in the thesis, enumerates the proposals made by the thesis in discussing the concepts and presents some questions for future research which have emerged in the course of investigation. The chapter also specifies the extent to which the investigation of the principle of least effort is a meaningful contribution to phonology.

Testamento vital: onde se situam os enfermeiros? Integração de uma nova realidade nos cuidados de enfermagem ao doente e família

O enfermeiro é o profissional de saúde que tem como objectivo prestar cuidados de Enfermagem ao ser humano, são ou doente, ao longo de todo o ciclo vital. (Decreto-Lei n.º 161/96 de 4 de Setembro, alterado pelo Decreto-Lei n.º 104/98 de 21 de Abril. Regulamento do Exercício Profissional dos Enfermeiros) A presença de um doente com testamento vital internado no serviço de cardiologia, cujo conhecimento por parte da equipa multidisciplinar foi tardio, suscitou várias questões tendo despoletado a reflexão sobre esta temática. O doente tem o dever de fornecer aos profissionais as informações necessárias para a obtenção de um adequado diagnóstico e tratamento. Quando tal não ocorre ou não é possível, cabe também ao enfermeiro uma adequada colheita de dados para a prestação de cuidados de qualidade. Actualmente a consulta do Registo Nacional do Testamento Vital (RENTEV) é da responsabilidade do médico que “assegura da existência do documento de Directivas Antecipadas da Vontade e/ou procuração de cuidados de saúde” aí registados. (Lei Nº 25.º / 2012 de 16 de Julho. Diário da república Nº136 – 1ª Série Assembleia da República) A ausência desta informação por parte do enfermeiro poderá trazer constrangimentos à sua intervenção dado que, desconhecendo-se a vontade do doente poderá facilitar a realização de procedimentos invasivos. O testamento vital é já uma realidade mas, perante tais obstáculos que podem pôr em causa a vontade expressa do doente e os cuidados de excelência, como poderemos colmatar tais lacunas? Cremos ser importante constar da avaliação inicial e processo de cuidados a colheita de informação sobre a existência ou não de testamento vital, que assegure o consequente conhecimento do seu conteúdo, independentemente do que vigora na lei sobre o acesso administrativo dos enfermeiros ao RENTEV. Entende-se que esta não é matéria terminada e que o quadro legal que a suporta poderá necessitar de aperfeiçoamento e compatibilização com a realidade que o futuro desvendar. Bibliografia Decreto-Lei n.º 161/96 de 4 de Setembro, alterado pelo Decreto-Lei n.º 104/98 de 21 de Abril. Regulamento do Exercício Profissional dos Enfermeiros Lei Nº 25.º / 2012 de 16 de Julho. Diário da República Nº136 – 1ªSérie. Assembleia da República.

Newfoundland & Labrador’s Vital Signs 2016: A province-wide check-up of quality of life in Newfoundland & Labrador communities for 2016

Vital Signs is an annual check-up on quality of life in our province that looks at how our communities are faring in key areas like wellness, housing, and the economy.

Minimum Vital of Drinking Water in the Jurisprudence of the Colombian Constitutional Court

The minimum vital of drinking water for vulnerable people isprotected by the Colombian Constitutional Jurisprudence,locally and nationally. The Constitutional Court has created asolid jurisprudential line on the right to water in relation to thesuspension of water supply service for the customer’s failure topay for the service; this Court has also defined the conditionsnecessary for the companies to refrain from suspending serviceand the minimum amount necessary for survival. Compliance withthese sentences has been limited to the orders pronounced to thebenefit of the company that provides such service, including theexecution of payment agreements for accessing the water supply.The implementation of the free minimum vital of drinking water inColombia has been defined through targeting and requirements thatare set only to benefit market laws, such as payment agreements,except for Bogota that, from the point of view of human rights,has proposed the respect for the minimum vital of drinking waterfor all social strata.

Opinión de enfermería y concordancia entre las escalas visual analógica, verbal simple y numérica, en la valoración del dolor agudo como 5ª constante vital

Objetivo: Conocer la opinión de los profesionales de enfermería sobre la utilidad del registro y valoración del dolor agudo como quinta constante clínica; así como, determinar la correlación de la escala visual analógica (EVA) con la verbal simple (EVS) y la verbal numérica (EVN). Material y métodos: Estudio observacional descriptivo. Cuestionario de opinión "ad hoc" y correlación lineal entre escalas. Análisis estadístico descriptivo e inferencial mediante el coeficiente de correlación intraclase y el método de Bland-Altman. Resultados: muestra de 102 profesionales (58% mujeres). El 90,2% cree importante que se mida el dolor agudo; el 65,7% ven la escala EVA poco práctica; el 80,4% no sabe cuándo se debe reevaluar el dolor (p<0,05). La concordancia entre escalas fue baja-moderada, siendo la EVN la mejor alternativa a la EVA. Conclusiones: el procedimiento de registro y medición del dolor fue muy bien valorado por los profesionales, pero su implementación presentó baja adherencia. La concordancia obtenida no fue significativa para sustituir con garantías a la EVA.

Kwestia niekonstytucyjności roszczenia informacyjnego z art. 2861 p.w.p. – wybrane zagadnienia

Roszczenie informacyjne jest instrumentem prawnym, przy pomocy którego uprawniony z tytuł prawa do patentu, prawa ochronnego na wzór użytkowy, prawa z rejestracji wzoru przemysłowego czy też prawa ochronnego na znak towarowy może domagać się, aby sąd zobowiązał określony podmiot do ujawnienia informacji, które są niezbędne dla skutecznego dochodzenia roszczeń przed sądem. Niejednokrotnie bowiem ze względu na niematerialny charakter praw własności przemysłowej ustalenie naruszyciela tych praw oraz skali samego naruszenia jest znacznie utrudnione. Wokół tytułowego roszczenia informacyjnego na gruncie ustawy Prawo własności przemysłowej powstało szereg kontrowersji, którego zwieńczeniem było wniesienie skargi konstytucyjnej w 2015 roku, oczekującej obecnie na rozstrzygnięcie przez Trybunał Konstytucyjny. Realizacja roszczenia tego rodzaju powoduje bowiem, że ochrona praw podmiotu uprawnionego prowadzi nieuchronnie do ograniczenia praw innego podmiotu – zobowiązanego do udzielenia informacji. Wobec tego szczególnie istotne jest respektowanie zasady proporcjonalności przy ustanawianiu ograniczeń praw i wolności obywatelskich. W niniejszym opracowaniu została rozważona zasadność zarzutów niekonstytucyjności omawianej instytucji prawnej i jej zgodności m.in. z prawem do sądu oraz wolnością działalności gospodarczej w zestawieniu z zasadą proporcjonalności ograniczenia praw konstytucyjnych. Na tle wątpliwości co do zgodności z Konstytucją roszczenia informacyjnego przedstawione zostały także kwestie dotyczące wadliwości implementacji dyrektywy unijnej w zakresie roszczenia o udzielenie informacji. Wszystkie zagadnienia zostały omówione na tle stosunków gospodarczych, w jakich uczestniczą podmioty uprawnione do żądania udzielenia informacji, a także zobowiązane do ich udzielenia.

Beyond the Cosmological Principle

Simplifying the Einstein field equation by assuming the cosmological principle yields a set of differential equations which governs the dynamics of the universe as described in the cosmological standard model. The cosmological principle assumes the space appears the same everywhere and in every direction and moreover, the principle has earned its position as a fundamental assumption in cosmology by being compatible with the observations of the 20th century. It was not until the current century when observations in cosmological scales showed significant deviation from isotropy and homogeneity implying the violation of the principle. Among these observations are the inconsistency between local and non-local Hubble parameter evaluations, baryon acoustic features of the Lyman-α forest and the anomalies of the cosmic microwave background radiation. As a consequence, cosmological models beyond the cosmological principle have been studied vastly; after all, the principle is a hypothesis and as such should frequently be tested as any other assumption in physics. In this thesis, the effects of inhomogeneity and anisotropy, arising as a consequence of discarding the cosmological principle, is investigated. The geometry and matter content of the universe becomes more cumbersome and the resulting effects on the Einstein field equation is introduced. The cosmological standard model and its issues, both fundamental and observational are presented. Particular interest is given to the local Hubble parameter, supernova explosion, baryon acoustic oscillation, and cosmic microwave background observations and the cosmological constant problems. Explored and proposed resolutions emerging by violating the cosmological principle are reviewed. This thesis is concluded by a summary and outlook of the included research papers.

Análise experimental do comportamento à flexão e ligação entre painéis de lajes tipo bubbledeck

Dissertação (mestrado)—Universidade de Brasília, Faculdade de Tecnologia, Departamento de Engenharia Civil e Ambiental, 2016.

La familia agraria. Un caso donde la familia es prioritaria en el proyecto vital de las madres

Begoña Arregi, Andrés Davila (editores)

Apoyo social y empowerment en la satisfacción laboral y vital de los trabajadores sociales

Este trabajo trata de estudiar el rol que el apoyo social y el empowerment tienen como recursos psicosociales frente al burnout y el engagement en trabajadores sociales. Pretendemos analizar cómo el apoyo social y el empowerment ejercen una influencia positiva en el bienestar de este colectivo. La aparición del burnout puede condicionar los niveles de satisfacción laboral y vital en los trabajadores sociales. Para hacerle frente, es necesario que el profesional conozca y refuerce sus recursos psicosociales. Este estudio parte de la premisa de que los profesionales que trabajen en una cultura organizacional en la que cuenten con suficiente apoyo y empowerment, sufrirán menos burnout y se sentirán más vinculados psicológicamente a su trabajo (engagement), lo que incidirá positivamente en su satisfacción laboral y vital. El documento se estructura en ocho capítulos agrupados en dos títulos. El Título I corresponde al marco teórico que fundamenta la investigación y está compuesto por seis capítulos, cada uno de los cuales contiene el análisis de las variables de estudio. Se realiza un recorrido teórico por el burnout, apoyo social, satisfacción laboral, satisfacción con la vida, empowerment y engagement. El Título II se compone de dos partes: el capítulo siete, dedicado al planteamiento de la investigación, donde se enuncian los objetivos a alcanzar y la metodología empleada, así como los resultados obtenidos, para lo cual realizaremos distintos niveles de análisis que nos permitan conocer, por un lado, la caracterización del colectivo profesional y, por otro, las relaciones que se observan entre las distintas variables. Para finalizar, el capítulo ocho contendrá el análisis de los resultados encontrados y se expondrán las conclusiones principales. Los resultados confirman las hipótesis planteadas: el apoyo social y el empowerment presentan una relación directa positiva con el engagement, de manera que lo potencian, y negativa con el burnout, contribuyendo a su reducción. Asimismo, muestran una influencia indirecta positiva sobre la satisfacción laboral y vital, a través de su papel amortiguador de los efectos del burnout y exaltador de los del engagement sobre ambas variables.

The Principle of Proportionality in International Law

Whilst the principle of proportionality indisputably plays a crucial role in the protection of fundamental rights, it is still unclear to what extent it applies to other fields in international law. The paper therefore explores the role it plays in selected fields of public international law, beyond human rights. The examination begins in the classical domain of reprisals and in maritime boundary delimitation and continues to analyse the role played in the law of multilateral trade regulation of the World Trade Organization and in bilateral investment protection. In an attempt to explain differences in recourse to proportionality in the various fields, we develop in our conclusions a distinction between horizontal and vertical constellations of legal protection.

La vivienda unifamiliar de interés social en el Área Metropolitana de Monterrey [AMM] México y el bienestar social del usuario; la vivienda VITAL

Tradicionalmente la vivienda social en México ha sido analizada de manera cuantitativa principalmente en cuanto al déficit y el rezago, omitiendo la aportación que el uso de esas viviendas ofrece al bienestar de sus ocupantes. Este artículo presenta a la "vivienda VITAL" como propuesta de vivienda unifamiliar con espacio interior dirigido al bienestar de su usuario, con base en una investigación1 cualitativa que incluyó a usuarios de vivienda de interés social ubicados en tres desarrollos habitacionales en el Área Metropolitana de Monterrey, Nuevo León, y a funcionarios públicos dedicados al diseño y ejecución de vivienda social en México. ABSTRACT Traditionally social housing in Mexico has been analyzed quantitatively mainly in regards to deficit and backlog, omitting the contribution that the usage of these houses offers to the welfare of their habitants. This article introduces the "housing VITAL" as a proposal for a single family housing with interior space focused to the welfare of its user, based on a qualitative research that included low income housing users in three housing developments located at the Metropolitan Area of Monterrey, Nuevo León, and public servants dedicated to the design and implementation of social housing in Mexico

Folheto Informativo sobre Testamento Vital

Em 2014 ter um Testamento Vital é um novo direito dos Cidadãos Portugueses.

Investigation of un-American propaganda activities in the United States : Hearings before a Special Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, Seventy-fifth Congress, third session-Seventy-eighth Congress, second session, on H. Res. 282, to investigate (1) the extent, character, and objects of un-American propaganda activities in the United States, (2) the diffusion within the United States of subversive and un-American propaganda that is instigated from foreign countries or of a domestic origin and attacks the principle of the form of government as guaranteed by our Constitution, and (3) all other questions in relation thereto that would aid Congress in any necessary remedial legislation.

Martin Dies, chairman.