Use of wild fish and other aquatic organisms as feed in aquaculture; a review of practices and implications in the Asia Pacific

Global and Asian aquaculture have witnessed a ten-fold increase in production from 1980 to 2004. However, the relative percent contribution to production of each of the major commodities has remained almost unchanged. For example, the contribution of freshwater finfish has declined from 71 to 66 percent in Asia but has remained unchanged globally over the last 20 to 30 years. This fact has dictated trends in the use of fish as a feed for cultured stocks. The growth in the sector has gone hand in hand with an increasing dependence on fish as feed, either directly or indirectly. In a number of countries in the Asia-Pacific region, the aquaculture sector has surpassed the capture fisheries sector in its respective contributions to the gross domestic product (GDP). Aquaculture’s increased contribution to national GDPs can be taken as a clear indication of the contribution of the sector to food security and poverty alleviation. The use of finfish and other aquatic organisms as a feed source can be through direct utilization of whole or chopped raw fish in wet form, through fishmeal and fish oil in formulated feeds, and/or as live fish, although the latter is uncommon and the overall amounts used are relatively small. In the first two categories, the fish used are often termed “trash fish/low-value fish”. Although attempts have been made to define this term, all definitions have a certain degree of ambiguity and/or subjectivity. In this regional review, the amount of fish used as feed sources based on the above categories was estimated primarily from the production data, supported by assumptions on the inclusion levels of fishmeal in formulated feeds and observed feed conversion efficiencies for both formulated feeds and for stock fed trash fish/low-value fish directly. A scenario for the use of fish as feed was developed by starting from the levels of aquaculture production recorded in 2004 and assuming increases in production volumes of 10, 15 and 20 percent by 2010, respectively, for the three trajectories. In parallel, the pattern of wild fish use as feed was projected to change as fish and shrimp farmers increasingly replace farmmade feeds by incorporating trash fish/low-value fish with manufactured feeds that include fishmeal. Also, the fishmeal inclusion rates in manufactured feeds are falling slowly, and this has been incorporated into the projections. The regional review also deals with the production of fishmeal using trash fish/low-value fish in the Asia-Pacific region. Regional fishmeal production as a whole is relatively low when compared with that of major fishmeal-producing countries such as Chile, Iceland and Norway, amounting to approximately 1 million tonnes per year. However, there is a trend towards increasing the use of fish industry waste, such as from the tuna canning industry in Thailand. The fishmeal produced in the region is priced considerably lower than globally traded fishmeal, but its quality is poorer. Total fishmeal use in Asian aquaculture in 2004 was estimated as 2 388 million tonnes, the highest proportion of this being used for crustacean aquaculture (1 418 million tonnes). Based on growth predictions (to year 2010) in the sector and improvements to feed quality and management, it is expected that the quantity of fishmeal used in Asian aquaculture will be slightly less than at present. An estimated 240 000 tonnes of fish oil is used in Asian aquaculture, principally in shrimp feeds. Based on production estimates of commodities in 2004 that rely on trash fish/low-value fish as the main feed source, this regional review suggests that Asian aquaculture currently uses between 2 465 and 3 882 million tonnes, an amount that is predicted to decrease to between 1.890 and 2 795 million tonnes by 2010. The use of trash fish/low-value fish and fishmeal by the aquaculture sector has been repeatedly adjudicated as a non-sustainable practice, and globally the sector is seeking to reduce its dependence on fish as feed through improved feed management practices and development of better quality feeds and feed formulations using alternative ingredients. Over the next few years, decreases in the use of trash fish/low-value fish are also expected to be achieved through better conversion of raw materials into fishmeal and fish oil during the reduction processes. The “way forward” in addressing the issue of the use of fish as feed in aquaculture in the Asia-Pacific region includes the need for a concerted regional research thrust to reduce the use of fish as feed sources in aquaculture, as has been achieved in the animal husbandry sector. Secondly, there is a need to increase farmer awareness on the use of trash fish as feed. This is achievable, considering the similar progress that has been made by the region’s shrimp farming sector, which almost exclusively involves small-scale practitioners who are often clustered in a given locality. The analysis also suggests that the use of trash fish/low-value fish in aquaculture may be compatible with improving food security and alleviating poverty. In Asia, trash fish/low-value fish is mostly landed in areas where there are other suitable fish commodities for human consumption. To make the trash fish/low-value fish suitable and available for human consumption would involve some degree of value-adding and transportation costs, which are likely to increase the price to beyond the means of the consumer, particularly in remote rural areas. Under such a scenario, the direct or indirect use of this perishable resource as a feed source to produce a consumable commodity appears to make economic sense and appears to be the most logical use for overall human benefit. In this manner, trash fish/low-value fish contributes to food security by increasing income generation opportunities and hence contributes to poverty alleviation. Another factor that needs to be taken into account is the large numbers of artisanal fishers who harvest this raw material. The continued use of trash fish/low-value fish, therefore, allows these fishers to maintain their livelihoods¹. Admittedly, this is an area that warrants more detailed investigation, from resource use, livelihoods and economic viewpoints.

Perfecting nature : Friedrich Nietzsche's ideal and politics of cultivation

What I have called the Ideal of Cultivation is a fundamental ethical principle of civilisation, originated by aristocratic warriors in Greek antiquity who held that the true purpose of humanity is to perfect nature

It was then professed that individuals and even entire peoples could consciously develop and improve themselves in a way that was thought to obey the original lawful impulses of nature, a process which was likened to those of agriculture and animal husbandry.

Subsequently the cognate idea of a politics of cultivation arose which deemed that society should be organised specifically to produce more virtuous or perfect human types. Given their fundamental association with Hellenism both ideas have been revisited constantly in the intellectual history of the west, and most notably during the great secular periods, the Renaissance and Enlightenment when active attempts were made to retrieve the ideals of antiquity. Both ideas were particularly pervasive in the German enlightenment, the Aufklärung, and were assimilated by the succeeding Romantic generation.

In nineteenth century Germany, when interest in these ideas was quickly waning, the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche acquired an unswerving attachment to them and made the service of them his life's work.

The intention of this essay is to trace methodically the appearance of the Ideal of Cultivation in Nietzsche's philosophy and politics, and to outline his responses to a world which was abandoning the principles in which he deeply believed. This essay should be regarded as a case study in the long history of a fundamental ethical idea rather than one about the philosopher Nietzsche.

Wear of permanent incisors with age on commercial Australian Angora goat farms

OBJECTIVE: To quantify if, and to what extent, permanent incisor wear differed with age of goat and farm of origin on commercial Australian Angora goat farms. DESIGN: Observations were made on three Angora goat farms in the wheat-sheep zone of Victoria, each managed according to the farmer's practices. Farmers provided a representative flock of does. METHODS: The proportion and pattern of wear of permanent incisors were recorded and percentage wear calculated. After log(y + 10) transformation, a parsimonious general linear model was developed to relate wear to farm and age, with age considered as a continuous variate. RESULTS: The range in wear of the permanent incisors was 0-100%. For each farm, the most parsimonious model for permanent first incisor wear and average wear of all permanent incisors was a separate straight line relating the transformed incisor wear to the age of doe. The models accounted for 66-73% of variance. On each farm the incisor wear was similar and low for ages up to approximately 4 years. On all farms, the amount of incisor wear increased dramatically with age, although the rate of increase differed with each farm. CONCLUSIONS: Permanent incisor wear increased with age of goat and differed with farm of origin. Angora goat farmers need to be aware of the potential for incisor wear to affect doe production and health.

Cholinesterase Research Outreach Project (CROP): measuring cholinesterase activity and pesticide use in an agricultural community

BACKGROUND: Australian farmers and their workers are exposed to a wide variety of pesticides. Organophosphate (OP) insecticides are a widely used class of pesticide used for animal husbandry practices (Naphthalophos for sheep dipping, jetting and drench), crop production for pest control (Dimethoate) and in public health (Maldison for head lice). Acute poisonings with this class of insecticide are reported among agricultural workers and children around the globe, due to the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE). Less is known about chronic exposures. Regular monitoring of erythrocyte AChE will enable farmers to identify potential exposure to organophosphate insecticides and take action to reduce exposures and improve their health and safety practices. This study aims to assess and improve the integration of AChE monitoring into routine point of care health clinics, and provide farming and non-farming people with a link between their AChE activity and their household chemical and agrichemical use. METHODS/DESIGN: The research will target individuals who work on mixed farming enterprises and routinely using OPs (n = 50) and non-farmers (n = 30). Baseline data are collected regarding demographic, health conditions and behaviours, Kessler 10 (K10) scores, chemical use and personal protection. Baseline anthropometric measures include height, weight, hip and waist circumference, body fat analysis and, biochemical analysis of fasted total serum cholesterol, triglycerides, low-density cholesterol (LDL), high-density cholesterol (HDL) and blood glucose. Analysis of erythrocyte cholinesterase (EAChE) activity is also conducted using a finger prick test. Testing of EAChE is then repeated in all participants every 3 weeks for a maximum of three times over a period 10 weeks. Participants are provided with full feedback and counselling about their EAChE activity after each reading and a detailed summary provided to all participants at the completion of the study. Data will be analysed using repeated measures within a general linear model. DISCUSSION: This work will provide an evidence base and recommendations for the integration of EAChE monitoring into Australian rural health clinics, leading to research which will further quantify pesticide exposure both on the farm and in the home, highlighting the importance of sustaining and providing a safe work and home environment for farming communities. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ACTRN12613001256763.

Suckling and allosuckling in river buffalo calves and its relation with weight gain

The aim of the present study was to investigate if river buffalo calves (Bubalus bubalis) have equal access to all cows and if milk is thus equally available to all of them. We recorded suckling/allosuckling behaviour and weight gain (WG) of 29 calves (14 males and 15 females), with special consideration to their sex, birth order (BO) and age. Cows' nursing behaviour and milli production (MP) were also considered. While males tended to be born earlier than females during this study, this was not the trend in the overall herd records. The cows' MP was not effected by the calves' sex. However, bull-calves presented greater mean WG, and mean times spent in individual filial (IF) and in communal nonfilial (CNF) suckling than heifer-calves, which showed greater communal filial (CF) suckling than the former during the first 4 months of life. The WG was associated with IF for bull-calves (r = 0.680 and 0.765, respectively, for the periods from birth to 4th and 8th months of age), and to CNF for heifer-calves (r = 0.628, for the period from birth to 8th month). Results from multiple regression analysis showed independent effects of each suckling category on the calf WG, and such effects were variable according to the calf's sex. BO was negatively correlated to calves' WG (bull-calves: r(s) = - 0.873 and - 0.799, from birth to 4th and gth months, respectively; heifer-calves: r(s) = - 0.531 from birth to 4th month). Specifically for bull-calves, there was a positive correlation between BO and MP (r(s) = 0.528 and 0.633, from birth to 4th and 8th months of age, respectively). The correlation between BO and IF was negative in both sexes, indicating that calves that were born early had more opportunities to suckle individually from their mothers. For heifer-calves, BO was positively correlated with CF (two periods), and negatively with CNF (from birth to 8th month of age), suggesting that heifer-calves were most often accompanied by other calves during suckling when they were born later. The data taken together indicate that sex and/or BO influenced decisively social interactions during suckling, promoting differential development among the calves. In animal husbandry, if a homogenous WG is desired, these factors have to be taken into consideration. (C) 2000 Elsevier B.V. B.V. All rights reserved.

Serological survey for rabies in serum samples from vampire bats (Desmodus rotundus) in Botucatu region, SP, Brazil

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Necrotic skin lesion in a dog attributed to Loxosceles (brown spider) bite: a case report

Envenomations caused by Loxosceles (brown spider) have been reported throughout the world. Clinical signs associated to bites of these spiders involve dermonecrotic lesions and intense local inflammatory response, besides systemic manifestations such as intravascular hemolysis, thrombocytopenia, disseminated intravascular coagulation and acute renal failure. The present study aimed to report and to describe dermonecrotic lesions probably caused by a Loxosceles envenomation in a four year-old poodle female dog, treated at the Dermatology Service of the Veterinary Hospital of the Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry School, São Paulo State University, Botucatu, Brazil. Initially, the animal presented two skin lesions with blackish aspect that evolved into ulcerative crusts. The owner reported the presence of a brown spider near the place where the animal spent most of the time. Histological examination of lesions revealed necrosis of the epidermis extending to adnexa and panniculi, which is compatible with Loxosceles bite reaction. The animal was treated with systemic antibiotic and local curatives. Lesions healed by second intention in two months.

Isolation of Staphylococcus epidermidis from inflamed upper respiratory tract of an orange-spined hairy dwarf porcupine (Sphiggurus villosus)

The orange-spined hairy dwarf porcupine (Sphiggurus villosus) is a rodent species common in most parts of South America, and little is known about the pathologies that can afflict it. A specimen was delivered at the Wildlife Research and Medical Center (CEMPAS), School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, UNESP, Botucatu, SP, Brazil. The animal showed intense apathy, with purulent secretion in the nasal cavity and fracture of the lumbar spine. Due to the unfavorable prognosis, the porcupine was euthanized and microbiological culture of nasal discharge showed Staphylococcus epidermidis. The antimicrobial resistance test revealed sensitivity to all tested antimicrobials (ampicillin, oxacillin, tetracycline, penicillin G, neomycin, cephalexin, gentamicin, enrofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, cotrimoxazol, cefoxitin and cephalothin). This bacterium is part of the nasal flora of humans and other animals, and may cause infection under certain conditions. In the present study, the infection and colonization by S. epidermidis was the probable cause of the inflammatory process. The sensitivity to all tested antimicrobials suggests that this strain has not been previously exposed to such drugs.

Impact of leishmaniasis on public health

Leishmaniasis is a parasitic zoonosis caused by protozoans of the genus Leishmania transmitted by insects known as phlebotomines, which are found in wild or urban environments. It affects domestic and wild animals and transmission to man happens by accident. The disease occurs in tropical and sub-tropical areas, mainly in Asia, Europe, Africa, and the Americas. There are two forms that affect man: American cutaneous leishmaniasis (ACL) and American visceral leishmaniasis (AVL). The latter is caused by three species of Leishmania: Leishmania (Leishmania) donovani, Leishmania (Leishmania) infantum, and Leishmania (Leishmania) chagasi, which are grouped in the Leishmania (Leishmania) donovani complex. Wild reservoir hosts of L. chagasi known so far are foxes and marsupials. In domestic environment, dogs are the most important reservoir hosts and sources of infection to the vectors Lutzomyia longipalpis. Leishmaniasis is difficult to control, causing epidemic outbreaks, thus being an important public health problem. Due to lesions caused by the mucocutaneous type and the severity of those caused by the visceral type in humans, visceral leishmaniasis is one of the main public health concerns. This paper is part of the monograph presented at the end of the residency program in the field of Zoonosis and Public Health at the School of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, São Paulo State University, UNESP, Botucatu, São Paulo State, Brazil, in 2005.

Characterization of S3Pvac Anti-Cysticercosis Vaccine Components: Implications for the Development of an Anti-Cestodiasis Vaccine

Background: Cysticercosis and hydatidosis seriously affect human health and are responsible for considerable economic loss in animal husbandry in non-developed and developed countries. S3Pvac and EG95 are the only field trial-tested vaccine candidates against cysticercosis and hydatidosis, respectively. S3Pvac is composed of three peptides (KETc1, GK1 and KETc12), originally identified in a Taenia crassiceps cDNA library. S3Pvac synthetically and recombinantly expressed is effective against experimentally and naturally acquired cysticercosis.Methodology/ Principal Findings: In this study, the homologous sequences of two of the S3Pvac peptides, GK1 and KETc1, were identified and further characterized in Taenia crassiceps WFU, Taenia solium, Taenia saginata, Echinococcus granulosus and Echinococcus multilocularis. Comparisons of the nucleotide and amino acid sequences coding for KETc1 and GK1 revealed significant homologies in these species. The predicted secondary structure of GK1 is almost identical between the species, while some differences were observed in the C terminal region of KETc1 according to 3D modeling. A KETc1 variant with a deletion of three C-terminal amino acids protected to the same extent against experimental murine cysticercosis as the entire peptide. on the contrary, immunization with the truncated GK1 failed to induce protection. Immunolocalization studies revealed the non stage-specificity of the two S3Pvac epitopes and their persistence in the larval tegument of all species and in Taenia adult tapeworms.Conclusions/ Significance: These results indicate that GK1 and KETc1 may be considered candidates to be included in the formulation of a multivalent and multistage vaccine against these cestodiases because of their enhancing effects on other available vaccine candidates.

Richards growth model and viability indicators for populations subject to interventions

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Salmonelas e coliformes fecais em águas de bebida para animais

Sixty small farms of Botucatu County, S. Paulo, Brazil, given over to cattle breeding were studied. These farms account for 15% of the total of 402 farms that exist in the county. The sample was drawn by simple probabilistic technique. There were found to be one hundred and thirteen drinking places located on the farms. Samples of water were taken from these drinking places and examined for bacteria of the genus Salmonella, for the determination of Most Probable Number (MNP) of fecal coliform bacteria as well as determination of the water's pH. Water temperature was measured before collection. Samples from 15 drinking places (13.3%) were positive for Salmonella. The drinking places belonged to 12 of the sixty farms studied (20%). The following serotypes were identified: S. dublin, S. newport, S. madelia, S. IV 43:g,z57:-, S. saphra, S. glostrup, S. IV ochsenzool; S. I9,12:i:- and two new serotypes S. IV 41:z52:- and S. IV 50:d:-. Of the 113 samples studied 14 (12.4%) presented MPN/100ml of fecal coliforms above 4,000. There was no relationship between MPN/100ml of fecal coliforms above 4,000 and positivity for Salmonella. Highest positivity both for Salmonella and MPN/100mL of fecal coliforms over 4,000 occurred at temperatures above 18 degrees C. As regards pH, in both situations the highest positivity occurred between 6.0 and 7.0.

Monitoramento sanitário de um sistema integrado de tratamento de águas residuárias da suinocultura

Objective. To assess the potential for contamination of wastewaters from pig farming. Methods. Wastewaters from pig farming were stored in a tank. After 0, 30, 60, 90, and 120 days of hydraulic retention, they were added to lysimeters filled with argillaceous, sandy, or medium soil. Finally, these lysimeters were submitted to simulations of either a rainy season or a dry season. The number of colony-forming units (CFUs) of total coliforms, fecal coliforms, and fecal streptococci was measured in the effluents of the storage tank (for the various periods of hydraulic retention), in the percolate from the lysimeters, and in the three types of soil. The microbiological analyses were carried out using the membrane filter technique. The pH analyses were done potentiometrically. Results. For the three microorganisms, the largest decrease in bacterial counts in the storage tanks occurred with 90 or 120 days of retention. There was a marked decrease in the bacterial count in the percolates of the three soils. For the three soil types the greatest reduction in bacterial counts was found in medium soil, due to its acidity (pH < 7.0). Hydraulic retention was not sufficient to ensure the sanitary adequacy of the wastewaters and their use for irrigation, given that fecal coliform values were above 1 000 CFU per 100 mL. Therefore, adding the residues to the soil was considered a second stage of treatment. Conclusions. The retention of wastewaters followed by adding them to soil was effective in minimizing the contaminating effect of pig farming residues. The storage time for wastewaters from pig farming could be decreased from 120 to 90 days.

An outbreak of chlamydiosis in captive blue-fronted Amazon parrots (Amazona aestiva) in Brazil

Fifty-eight blue-fronted Amazon parrot (Amazona aestiva) nestlings, recovered from the illegal trade, became ill at a wildlife rehabilitation center in São Paulo State, Brazil. Clinical signs observed were nonspecific, and the mortality rate was 96.5% despite initial treatment with norfloxacin. Postmortem examinations were performed on 10 birds. Liver and spleen smears showed structures suggestive of Chlamydophila psittaci in four cases. Diagnosis was confirmed by seminested polymerase chain reaction on tissue samples. Other birds from the same location showed no clinical signs of the disease, although high complement fixation titers to C. psittaci were found in 10 adult psittacines. All birds in the facility were treated with doxycycline. The two surviving nestlings did not recover after two doxycycline treatments and were euthanatized. The high mortality rate observed in this outbreak was attributed to poor conditions of husbandry and delays in the diagnosis and treatment of the disease. After diagnosis, improved control measures for chlamydiosis were instituted.