Geoinformatics for Urbanisation and Urban Sprawl Pattern Analysis

Urbanisation is the increase in the population of cities in proportion to the region's rural population. Urbanisation in India is very rapid with urban population growing at around 2.3 percent per annum. Urban sprawl refers to the dispersed development along highways or surrounding the city and in rural countryside with implications such as loss of agricultural land, open space and ecologically sensitive habitats. Sprawl is thus a pattern and pace of land use in which the rate of land consumed for urban purposes exceeds the rate of population growth resulting in an inefficient and consumptive use of land and its associated resources. This unprecedented urbanisation trend due to burgeoning population has posed serious challenges to the decision makers in the city planning and management process involving plethora of issues like infrastructure development, traffic congestion, and basic amenities (electricity, water, and sanitation), etc. In this context, to aid the decision makers in following the holistic approaches in the city and urban planning, the pattern, analysis, visualization of urban growth and its impact on natural resources has gained importance. This communication, analyses the urbanisation pattern and trends using temporal remote sensing data based on supervised learning using maximum likelihood estimation of multivariate normal density parameters and Bayesian classification approach. The technique is implemented for Greater Bangalore – one of the fastest growing city in the World, with Landsat data of 1973, 1992 and 2000, IRS LISS-3 data of 1999, 2006 and MODIS data of 2002 and 2007. The study shows that there has been a growth of 466% in urban areas of Greater Bangalore across 35 years (1973 to 2007). The study unravels the pattern of growth in Greater Bangalore and its implication on local climate and also on the natural resources, necessitating appropriate strategies for the sustainable management.

Fusion of multi resolution remote sensing data for urban sprawl analysis

Urban population is growing at around 2.3 percent per annum in India. This is leading to urbanisation and often fuelling the dispersed development in the outskirts of urban and village centres with impacts such as loss of agricultural land, open space, and ecologically sensitive habitats. This type of upsurge is very much prevalent and persistent in most places, often inferred as sprawl. The direct implication of such urban sprawl is the change in land use and land cover of the region and lack of basic amenities, since planners are unable to visualise this type of growth patterns. This growth is normally left out in all government surveys (even in national population census), as this cannot be grouped under either urban or rural centre. The investigation of patterns of growth is very crucial from regional planning point of view to provide basic amenities in the region. The growth patterns of urban sprawl can be analysed and understood with the availability of temporal multi-sensor, multi-resolution spatial data. In order to optimise these spectral and spatial resolutions, image fusion techniques are required. This aids in integrating a lower spatial resolution multispectral (MSS) image (for example, IKONOS MSS bands of 4m spatial resolution) with a higher spatial resolution panchromatic (PAN) image (IKONOS PAN band of 1m spatial resolution) based on a simple spectral preservation fusion technique - the Smoothing Filter-based Intensity Modulation (SFIM). Spatial details are modulated to a co-registered lower resolution MSS image without altering its spectral properties and contrast by using a ratio between a higher resolution image and its low pass filtered (smoothing filter) image. The visual evaluation and statistical analysis confirms that SFIM is a superior fusion technique for improving spatial detail of MSS images with the preservation of spectral properties.

Sex and physiological state influence the rate of resource acquisition and monopolisation in urban free-ranging dogs, Canis familiaris

In animal populations, the constraints of energy and time can cause intraspecific variation in foraging behaviour. The proximate developmental mediators of such variation are often the mechanisms underlying perception and associative learning. Here, experience-dependent changes in foraging behaviour and their consequences were investigated in an urban population of free-ranging dogs, Canis familiaris by continually challenging them with the task of food extraction from specially crafted packets. Typically, males and pregnant/lactating (PL) females extracted food using the sophisticated `gap widening' technique, whereas non-pregnant/non-lactating (NPNL) females, the relatively underdeveloped `rip opening' technique. In contrast to most males and PL females (and a few NPNL females) that repeatedly used the gap widening technique and improved their performance in food extraction with experience, most NPNL females (and a few males and PL females) non-preferentially used the two extraction techniques and did not improve over successive trials. Furthermore, the ability of dogs to sophisticatedly extract food was positively related to their ability to improve their performance with experience. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that factors such as sex and physiological state can cause differences among individuals in the likelihood of learning new information and hence, in the rate of resource acquisition and monopolization.

Adjustment of ocean color sensor calibration through multi-band statistics

The band-by-band vicarious calibration of on-orbit satellite ocean color instruments, such as SeaWiFS and MODIS, using ground-based measurements has significant residual uncertainties. This paper applies spectral shape and population statistics to tune the calibration of the blue bands against each other to allow examination of the interband calibration and potentially provide an analysis of calibration trends. This adjustment does not require simultaneous matches of ground and satellite observations. The method demonstrates the spectral stability of the SeaWiFS calibration and identifies a drift in the MODIS instrument onboard Aqua that falls within its current calibration uncertainties.

Land-cover changes in an urban lake watershed in a mega-city, Central China

Urbanization can exert a profound influence on land covers and landscape characteristics. In this study, we characterize the impact of urbanization on land cover and lacustrine landscape and their consequences in a large urban lake watershed, Donghu Lake watershed (the largest urban lake in China), Central China, by using Landsat TM satellite images of three periods of 1987, 1993 and 1999 and ground-based information. We grouped the land covers into six categories: water body, vegetable land, forested land, shrub-grass land, open area and urban land, and calculated patch-related landscape indices to analyze the effects of urbanization on landscape features. We overlaid the land cover maps of the three periods to track the land cover change processes. The results indicated that urban land continuously expanded from 9.1% of the total watershed area in 1987, to 19.4% in 1993, and to 29.6% in 1999. The vegetable land increased from 7.0% in 1987, 11.9% in 1993, to 13.9% in 1999 to sustain the demands of vegetable for increased urban population. Concurrently, continuous reduction of other land cover types occurred between 1987 and 1999: water body decreased from 30.4% to 23.8%, and forested land from 33.6% to 24.3%. We found that the expansion of urban land has at least in part caused a decrease in relatively wild habitats, such as urban forest and lake water area. These alterations had resulted in significant negative environmental consequences, including decline of lakes, deterioration of water and air quality, and loss of biodiversity.

The End of the Urban-Rural Divide?

The urban-rural divide in China was an entrenched feature of Chinese society in the Maoist era. This divide generated and continues to generate inequality as between the rural population and the urban population. In post-Deng China, legal and administrative distinctions between urban and rural have become blurred, especially with the development of rural-urban migration. Nevertheless, the urban-rural divide still exists, and the income of farmers is below that of urban residents. In this paper, it is argued that the emergence of the phenomenon of “quasi-commons” in rural China, crossing the “borders” of the urbanrural divide, may increase farmers’ income in the future and bridge this divide. The paper focuses on different forms of “quasi-commons” (the sharing and use of communal land) emerging in rural areas, including the farmland shareholding cooperatives and transforming rural land management rights into shares in joint ventures. There are divergent views held by Chinese academics and policy makers about “quasi-commons” in rural China, as well as the direction of change in the rural land system. However, most of the proposals for reform have been polarized between nationalization and privatization of rural land. Looking beyond this “boundary thinking” and drawing on the discourses of “the commons” (for example, the writings of Hardin, Heller and Ostrom), this paper analyses the theoretical models of both the nationalization and privatization schemes and their shortcomings. The present essay also analyses the prospect for, and the barriers to the emerging commons in rural China.

Environnement alimentaire local et son association avec les habitudes alimentaires de personnes âgées

Contexte : Un accès adéquat aux aliments sains dans les environnements résidentiels peut contribuer aux saines habitudes alimentaires. Un tel accès est d’autant plus important pour les personnes âgées, où les changements associés au vieillissement peuvent accentuer leur dépendance aux ressources disponibles dans le voisinage. Cependant, cette relation n’a pas encore été établie chez les aînés. Objectifs : La présente thèse vise à quantifier les associations entre l’environnement alimentaire local et les habitudes alimentaires de personnes âgées vivant à domicile en milieu urbain. La thèse s’est insérée dans un projet plus large qui a apparié les données provenant d’une cohorte d’aînés québécois vivant dans la région métropolitaine montréalaise avec des données provenant d’un système d’information géographique. Trois études répondent aux objectifs spécifiques suivants : (1) développer des indices relatifs de mixité alimentaire pour qualifier l’offre d’aliments sains dans les magasins d’alimentation et l’offre de restaurants situés dans les quartiers faisant partie du territoire à l’étude et en examiner la validité; (2) quantifier les associations entre la disponibilité relative de magasins d’alimentation et de restaurants près du domicile et les habitudes alimentaires des aînés; (3) examiner l’influence des connaissances subjectives en nutrition dans la relation entre l’environnement alimentaire près du domicile et les habitudes alimentaires chez les hommes et les femmes âgés. Méthodes : Le devis consiste en une analyse secondaire de données transversales provenant de trois sources : les données du cycle 1 pour 848 participants de l’Étude longitudinale québécoise « La nutrition comme déterminant d’un vieillissement réussi » (2003-2008), le Recensement de 2001 de Statistique Canada et un registre privé de commerces et services (2005), ces derniers regroupés dans un système d’information géographique nommé Mégaphone. Des analyses bivariées non paramétriques ont été appliquées pour répondre à l’objectif 1. Les associations entre l’exposition aux commerces alimentaires dans le voisinage et les habitudes alimentaires (objectif 2), ainsi que l’influence des connaissances subjectives en nutrition dans cette relation (objectif 3), ont été vérifiées au moyen d’analyses de régression linéaires. Résultats : Les analyses ont révélé trois résultats importants. Premièrement, l’utilisation d’indices relatifs pour caractériser l’offre alimentaire s’avère pertinente pour l’étude des habitudes alimentaires, plus particulièrement pour l’offre de restaurants-minute. Deuxièmement, l’omniprésence d’aspects défavorables dans l’environnement, caractérisé par une offre relativement plus élevée de restaurants-minute, semble nuire davantage aux saines habitudes alimentaires que la présence d’opportunités d’achats d’aliments sains dans les magasins d’alimentation. Troisièmement, un environnement alimentaire plus favorable aux saines habitudes pourrait réduire les écarts quant à la qualité de l’alimentation chez les femmes ayant de plus faibles connaissances subjectives en nutrition par rapport aux femmes mieux informées. Conclusion : Ces résultats mettent en relief la complexité des liens entre l’environnement local et l’alimentation. Dans l’éventualité où ces résultats seraient reproduits dans des recherches futures, des stratégies populationnelles visant à résoudre un déséquilibre entre l’accès aux sources d’aliments sains par rapport aux aliments peu nutritifs semblent prometteuses.

Hypertension artérielle dans la population adulte du Burkina Faso : prévalence, détection, traitement et contrôle

Contexte : L’hypertension artérielle (HTA) est reconnue comme un important facteur de risque des maladies cardiovasculaires et de la mortalité prématurée. Les données montrent qu’un adulte sur 4 dans le monde souffrait d’hypertension en 2000 et ce chiffre serait en augmentation. Dans les pays africains, les estimations prévoient une progression plus rapide de la prévalence de l’HTA engendrant ainsi un problème additionnel à gérer pour le système de santé qui est toujours aux prises avec les maladies transmissibles. Les progrès économiques et l’urbanisation semblent entraîner des modifications des habitudes de vie dans ces pays qui seraient associés à une émergence des maladies non transmissibles, dont l’HTA. Le Burkina Faso, pays de l’Afrique de l’Ouest classé comme un pays à faibles revenus, aurait amorcé sa transition épidémiologique et il importe de faire un état sur les maladies non transmissibles en émergence. Afin de contribuer à la connaissance des aspects épidémiologiques de l’HTA au Burkina Faso, trois objectifs spécifiques ont été retenus pour la présente recherche : 1) Estimer la prévalence de l’HTA et identifier les facteurs associés dans la population rurale et la population semi-urbaine du Système de Surveillance démographique et de Santé de Kaya (Kaya HDSS) ; 2) Déterminer la différence de prévalence de l’HTA entre la zone lotie et la zone non lotie de la ville de Ouagadougou et identifier les facteurs associés ; 3) Déterminer la détection, le traitement, le contrôle de l’HTA et estimer la fréquentation des centres de santé par les personnes hypertendues nouvellement dépistées dans la population adulte du Centre Nord du Burkina Faso. Méthodologie : Le cadre de notre recherche est le Burkina Faso. Deux sites ont fait l’objet de nos investigations. Kaya HDSS, situé dans la région du Centre Nord du Burkina Faso a servi de site pour les enquêtes ayant permis l’atteinte du premier et du troisième objectif général. Une étude transversale a été menée en fin 2012 sur un échantillon aléatoire de 1645 adultes résidents du site. Un entretien suivi de mesures anthropométriques et de la pression artérielle (PA) ont été réalisés au domicile des participants. Toutes les personnes qui avaient une PA élevée (PA systolique ≥ 140 mm Hg et/ou PA diastolique ≥ 90 mm Hg) et qui n’avaient pas été diagnostiquées auparavant ont été référées à une formation sanitaire. Un second entretien a été réalisé avec ces personnes environ un mois après. Pour le second objectif général, c’est le système de surveillance démographique et de santé de Ouagadougou (Ouaga HDSS) qui a été retenu comme site. Ouaga HDSS couvre 5 quartiers de la zone nord de Ouagadougou. Une étude transversale a été réalisée en 2010 sur un échantillon aléatoire représentatif de la population adulte résidante du site (N = 2041). Des entretiens suivis de mesures anthropométriques et de la PA ont été réalisés durant l’enquête. Résultats : Notre premier article examine la prévalence de l’HTA et les facteurs associés en milieu rural et en milieu semi-urbain. Au total 1481 participants ont été dépistés et la prévalence totale pondérée était de 9,4 % (95 % IC : 7,3 % - 11,4 %) avec une grande différence entre le milieu semi-urbain et le milieu rural : un adulte sur 10 était hypertendu en milieu semi-urbain contre un adulte sur 20 en milieu rural. L’analyse multivariée nous a permis d’identifier l’âge avancé, le milieu semi-urbain et l’histoire familiale de l’HTA comme des facteurs de risque. Dans le deuxième article, nous avons déterminé la différence entre la zone lotie et la zone non lotie du milieu urbain en ce qui concerne l’HTA. Sur 2 041 adultes enquêtés, la prévalence totale est estimée à 18,6 % (95 % IC : 16,9 % - 20,3 %). Après ajustement avec l’âge, il n’y avait pas de différence de prévalence entre la zone lotie et la zone non lotie de la ville de Ouagadougou. Dans ce milieu urbain, l’obésité et l’inactivité physique sont confirmées comme des facteurs à risque. En plus des personnes âgées qui constituent un groupe à risque, les migrants venant du milieu rural et les veuves ont été identifiés comme des personnes à risque. Notre troisième article examine la détection, le traitement, le contrôle de l’HTA ainsi que la fréquentation des structures de santé par les personnes nouvellement dépistées hypertendues dans le milieu non urbain. Sur les 1481 participants à l’étude, 41 % n’avaient jamais mesuré leur PA. Sur les 123 participants (9,4 %) dépistés comme hypertendus, 26,8 % avaient déjà bénéficié d’un diagnostic et 75,8 % de ces derniers étaient sous traitement anti hypertensif. Parmi les participants sous traitement, 60 % (15 sur 25) avaient leur PA sous contrôle. Le suivi de 2 mois a permis de retrouver 72 des 90 personnes nouvellement dépistées. Seulement 50 % ont été en consultation et parmi ces derniers 76 % (28 personnes sur les 37) ont reçu une confirmation de leur hypertension. Conclusion : Notre recherche montre l’évolution de l’HTA en fonction du niveau d’urbanisation de la population. Même si les maladies infectieuses restent la priorité du système de santé, la lutte contre l’HTA doit s’inscrire dans un cadre général de lutte contre les maladies cardiovasculaires. Cette lutte doit être amorcée maintenant avant que des proportions inquiétantes ne soient atteintes. Des actions de prévention telles que la promotion de saines habitudes de vie, le dépistage de masse et un renforcement des capacités du système de soins sont à mettre en œuvre.

Opportunities and constraints of peri-urban buffalo and dairy cattle systems in Faisalabad, Punjab, Pakistan

In the big cities of Pakistan, peri-urban dairy production plays an important role for household income generation and the supply of milk and meat to the urban population. On the other hand, milk production in general, and peri-urban dairy production in particular, faces numerous problems that have been well known for decades. Peri-urban dairy producers have been especially neglected by politicians as well as non-government-organizations (NGOs). Against this background, a study in Pakistan’s third largest city, Faisalabad (Punjab Province), was carried out with the aims of gathering basic information, determining major constraints and identifying options for improvements of the peri-urban milk production systems. For data collection, 145 peri-urban households (HH) engaged in dairy production were interviewed face to face using a structured and pretested questionnaire with an interpreter. For analyses, HH were classified into three wealth groups according to their own perception. Thus, 38 HH were poor, 95 HH well off and 12 HH rich (26.2%, 65.5% and 8.3%, respectively). The richer the respondents perceived their HH, the more frequently they were actually in possession of high value HH assets like phones, bank accounts, motorbikes, tractors and cars. Although there was no difference between the wealth groups with respect to the number of HH members (about 10, range: 1 to 23), the educational level of the HH heads differed significantly: on average, heads of poor HH had followed education for 3 years, compared to 6 years for well off HH and 8 years for rich HH. About 40% of the poor and well off HH also had off-farm incomes, while the percentage was much higher - two thirds (67%) - for the rich HH. The majority of the HH were landless (62%); the rest (55 HH) possessed agricultural land from 0.1 to 10.1 ha (average 2.8 ha), where they were growing green fodder: maize, sorghum and pearl millet in summer; berseem, sugar cane and wheat were grown in winter. Dairy animals accounted for about 60% of the herds; the number of dairy animals per HH ranged from 2 to 50 buffaloes (Nili-Ravi breed) and from 0 to 20 cows (mostly crossbred, also Sahiwal). About 37% (n=54) of the HH did not keep cattle. About three quarters of the dairy animals were lactating. The majority of the people taking care of the animals were family workers; 17.3% were hired labourers (exclusively male), employed by 11 rich and 32 well off HH; none of the poor HH employed workers, but the percentages were 33.7% for the well off and 91.7% for the rich HH. The total number of workers increased significantly with increasing wealth (poor: 2.0; well off:2.5; rich: 3.4). Overall, 69 female labourers were recorded, making up 16.8% of employed workers and one fourth of the HH’s own labourers. Apparently, their only duty was to clean the animals´ living areas; only one of them was also watering and showering the animals. Poor HH relied more on female workers than the other two groups: 27.1% of the workers of poor HH were women, but only 14.8% and 6.8% of the labour force of well off and rich HH were female. Two thirds (70%) of the HH sold milk to dhodis (middlemen) and one third (35%) to neighbours; three HH (2%) did doorstep delivery and one HH (1%) had its own shop. The 91 HH keeping both species usually sold mixed milk (97%). Clients for mixed and pure buffalo milk were dhodis (78%, respectively 59%) and neighbours (28%, respectively 47%). The highest milk prices per liter (Pakistani Rupees, 100 PKR @ 0.8 Euro) were paid by alternative clients (44 PKR; 4 HH), followed by neighbours (40 PKR, 50 HH); dhodis paid lower prices (36 PKR, 99 HH). Prices for pure buffalo and mixed milk did not differ significantly. However, HH obtaining the maximum price from the respective clients for the respective type of milk got between 20% (mixed milk, alternative clients) and 68% (mixed milk, dhodi) more than HH fetching the minimum price. Some HH (19%) reported 7% higher prices for the current summer than the preceding winter. Amount of milk sold and distance from the HH to the city center did not influence milk prices. Respondents usually named problems that directly affected their income and that were directly and constantly visible to them, such as high costs, little space and fodder shortages. Other constraints that are only influencing their income indirectly, e.g. the relatively low genetic potential of their animals due to neglected breeding as well as the short- and long-term health problems correlated with imbalanced feeding and insufficient health care, were rarely named. The same accounts for problems accompanying improper dung management (storage, disposal, burning instead of recycling) for the environment and human health. Most of the named problems are linked to each other and should be addressed within the context of the entire system. Therefore, further research should focus on systematic investigations and improvement options, taking a holistic and interdisciplinary approach instead of only working in single fields. Concerted efforts of dairy farmers, researchers, NGOs and political decision makers are necessary to create an economic, ecological and social framework that allows dairy production to serve the entire society. For this, different improvement options should be tested in terms of their impact on environment and income of the farmers, as well as feasibility and sustainability in the peri-urban zones of Faisalabad.

The best of both worlds: Producing national statistics using participatory methods

This paper presents our experience with combining statistical principles and participatory methods to generate national statistics. The methodology was developed in Malawi during 1999–2002. We demonstrate that if PRA is combined with statistical principles (including probability-based sampling and standardization), it can produce total population statistics and estimates of the proportion of households with certain characteristics (e.g., poverty). It can also provide quantitative data on complex issues of national importance such as poverty targeting. This approach is distinct from previous PRA-based approaches, which generate numbers at community level but only provide qualitative information at national level.

Bone mineral density and incidence of hip fracture in Swedish urban and rural women 1987–2002

Background and purpose Although the incidence of hip fracture during the past 50 years has increased, a break in this trend has been reported in the last decade. Whether this change is attributable to changes in bone mineral density (BMD) or whether it varies between urban and rural regions is unknown.

Methods We evaluated changes in annual hip fracture incidence in women aged ≥ 50 years in one urban population (n = 51,757) and one rural population (n = 26,446) from 1987 to 2002. We also examined secular differences in BMD (mg/cm2), evaluated by single-photon absorptiometry at the distal radius, prevalence of osteoporosis, and several other risk factors for hip fracture in one population-based sample of urban women and one sample of rural women aged 50–80 years at two time points: 1988/89 (n = 257 and n = 180, respectively) and 1998/99 (n = 171 and n = 118, respectively).

Results No statistically significant changes were evident in annual age-adjusted hip fracture incidence per 104 when analyzing all women (–0.01 per year (95% CI: –0.37, 0.35)), rural women (–0.38 per year (-1.05, 0.28)), or urban women (0.19 per year (–0.28, 0.67)). BMD (expressed as T-score) was similar in 1988/99 and 1998/99 when analyzing all women (–0.09 (–0.26, 0.09)), urban women (–0.04 (–0.27, 0.19)), or rural women (–0.15 (–0.42, 0.13)) women.

Interpretation Since no changes in age-adjusted hip fracture incidence and no differences in BMD were found during the study period, changes evident in the other risk factors for hip fracture that we investigated (such as gait velocity and balance) are either of minor importance or are counteracted by changes in other risk factors.

Future Asian space : projecting the urban space of new East Asia

The idea of "Asian space" is undergoing a transformation as a result of rapid technological, economic, social and cultural changes. Following the shift to a global economy and an urban population explosion, Asian cities have been presented as a mainstay of progress, national pride, identity, and positioning on the global stage. The extraordinary pace and intensity of the changes have created a situation unique in the history of urban development. Despite the immense diversity of Asian countries, "Asia-ness" is often treated as a distinctive quality that has emerged from unique recent circumstances affecting Asian urbanizations as a whole. In Future Asian Space, 15 authors explore broad concepts relating to the creation and re-creation of "Asian space" and contemporary Asian identity, and their examination of different sites and research approaches highlights the difficulty of pinpointing what Asia-ness is, or might become. Appropriate design and planning of cities is a critical element in building a sustainable future and coping with environmental, social and cultural problems. Future Asian Space is designed to stimulate interest and engagement in discussions of the Asian city, and its trajectories in architecture and urbanism. The authors' conclusions are important for academics, theorists and practitioners, but they will also intrigue anyone interested in the future of cities and urban life in Asia.

Peak oxygen uptake of 12-18-year-old boys living in a densely populated urban environment

The purposes of this study were to provide data on the peak Vo 2 of 12-18-year-old boys from Hong Kong, a densely populated urban environment; to compare these data with those for other similarly aged populations; and to examine the correlations between peak Vo 2 and various anthropometric parameters of this group. A stratified, random sample of 86 ethnic Chinese boys had their peak Vo 2 determined using an on-line gas analysis system during incremental, treadmill running. The mean peak 17o2 of the boys was 2.7 SD 0.44 1- rain - 1 or, when expressed in relation to body mass, 52.0 SD 5-8 ml- kg- 1. min - 1. Peak Vo 2 (1. min - 1) was significantly correlated with body mass (r = 0.72, p < 0.001, age (r = 0.49, p < 0.001) and height (r = 0.71, p = 0-001). Peak Vo 2 (ml 'kg- 1. min- 1) showed no correlation with age or height. These data suggest that this population group has peak Vo 2 values very similar to those observed in boys from most other population groups.