Visual attention to food cues in obesity: An eye‐tracking study.

Objective
Based on the theory of incentive sensitization, the aim of this study was to investigate differences in attentional processing of food-related visual cues between normal-weight and overweight/obese males and females.

Methods
Twenty-six normal-weight (14M, 12F) and 26 overweight/obese (14M, 12F) adults completed a visual probe task and an eye-tracking paradigm. Reaction times and eye movements to food and control images were collected during both a fasted and fed condition in a counterbalanced design.

Results
Participants had greater visual attention towards high-energy-density food images compared to low-energy-density food images regardless of hunger condition. This was most pronounced in overweight/obese males who had significantly greater maintained attention towards high-energy-density food images when compared with their normal-weight counterparts however no between weight group differences were observed for female participants.

Conclusions
High-energy-density food images appear to capture visual attention more readily than low-energy-density food images. Results also suggest the possibility of an altered visual food cue-associated reward system in overweight/obese males. Attentional processing of food cues may play a role in eating behaviors thus should be taken into consideration as part of an integrated approach to curbing obesity.

Attentional bias to food-related visual cues: is there a role in obesity?

The incentive sensitisation model of obesity suggests that modification of the dopaminergic associated reward systems in the brain may result in increased awareness of food-related visual cues present in the current food environment. Having a heightened awareness of these visual food cues may impact on food choices and eating behaviours with those being most aware of or demonstrating greater attention to food-related stimuli potentially being at greater risk of overeating and subsequent weight gain. To date, research related to attentional responses to visual food cues has been both limited and conflicting. Such inconsistent findings may in part be explained by the use of different methodological approaches to measure attentional bias and the impact of other factors such as hunger levels, energy density of visual food cues and individual eating style traits that may influence visual attention to food-related cues outside of weight status alone. This review examines the various methodologies employed to measure attentional bias with a particular focus on the role that attentional processing of food-related visual cues may have in obesity. Based on the findings of this review, it appears that it may be too early to clarify the role visual attention to food-related cues may have in obesity. Results however highlight the importance of considering the most appropriate methodology to use when measuring attentional bias and the characteristics of the study populations targeted while interpreting results to date and in designing future studies.

Genetic studies of body mass index yield new insights for obesity biology

Obesity is heritable and predisposes to many diseases. To understand the genetic basis of obesity better, here we conduct a genome-wide association study and Metabochip meta-analysis of body mass index (BMI), a measure commonly used to define obesity and assess adiposity, in up to 339,224 individuals. This analysis identifies 97 BMI-associated loci (P < 5 × 10(-8)), 56 of which are novel. Five loci demonstrate clear evidence of several independent association signals, and many loci have significant effects on other metabolic phenotypes. The 97 loci account for ∼2.7% of BMI variation, and genome-wide estimates suggest that common variation accounts for >20% of BMI variation. Pathway analyses provide strong support for a role of the central nervous system in obesity susceptibility and implicate new genes and pathways, including those related to synaptic function, glutamate signalling, insulin secretion/action, energy metabolism, lipid biology and adipogenesis.

Genetic Evidence for a Causal Role of Obesity in Diabetic Kidney Disease

Obesity has been posited as an independent risk factor for diabetic kidney disease (DKD), but establishing causality from observational data is problematic. We aimed to test whether obesity is causally related to DKD using Mendelian randomization, which exploits the random assortment of genes during meiosis. In 6,049 subjects with type 1 diabetes, we used a weighted genetic risk score (GRS) comprised of 32 validated BMI loci as an instrument to test the relationship of BMI with macroalbuminuria, end-stage renal disease (ESRD), or DKD defined as presence of macroalbuminuria or ESRD. We compared these results with cross-sectional and longitudinal observational associations. Longitudinal analysis demonstrated a U-shaped relationship of BMI with development of macroalbuminuria, ESRD, or DKD over time. Cross-sectional observational analysis showed no association with overall DKD, higher odds of macroalbuminuria (for every 1 kg/m(2) higher BMI, odds ratio [OR] 1.05, 95% CI 1.03-1.07, P < 0.001), and lower odds of ESRD (OR 0.95, 95% CI 0.93-0.97, P < 0.001). Mendelian randomization analysis showed a 1 kg/m(2) higher BMI conferring an increased risk in macroalbuminuria (OR 1.28, 95% CI 1.11-1.45, P = 0.001), ESRD (OR 1.43, 95% CI 1.20-1.72, P < 0.001), and DKD (OR 1.33, 95% CI 1.17-1.51, P < 0.001). Our results provide genetic evidence for a causal link between obesity and DKD in type 1 diabetes. As obesity prevalence rises, this finding predicts an increase in DKD prevalence unless intervention should occur.

Recipient obesity and outcomes after kidney transplantation: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of obesity is increasing globally and is associated with chronic kidney disease and premature mortality. However, the impact of recipient obesity on kidney transplant outcomes remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate the association between recipient obesity and mortality, death-censored graft loss and delayed graft function (DGF) following kidney transplantation.

METHODS: A systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted using Medline, Embase and the Cochrane Library. Observational studies or randomized controlled trials investigating the association between recipient obesity at transplantation and mortality, death-censored graft loss and DGF were included. Obesity was defined as a body mass index (BMI) of ≥30 kg/m(2). Obese recipients were compared with those with a normal BMI (18.5-24.9 kg/m(2)). Pooled estimates of hazard ratios (HRs) for patient mortality or death-censored graft loss and odds ratios (ORs) for DGF were calculated.

RESULTS: Seventeen studies including 138 081 patients were analysed. After adjustment, there was no significant difference in mortality risk in obese recipients [HR = 1.24, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.90-1.70, studies = 5, n = 83 416]. However, obesity was associated with an increased risk of death-censored graft loss (HR = 1.06, 95% CI = 1.01-1.12, studies = 5, n = 83 416) and an increased likelihood of DGF (OR = 1.68, 95% CI = 1.39-2.03, studies = 4, n = 28 847).

CONCLUSIONS: Despite having a much higher likelihood of DGF, obese transplant recipients have only a slightly increased risk of graft loss and experience similar survival to recipients with normal BMI.

Untreated Mild Hyperglycemia During Pregnancy and Anthropometric Measures of Obesity in Offspring at Age 5-7 Years

OBJECTIVE: Obesity in the offspring of women with hyperglycemia during pregnancy has been reported, but the results are conflicting. This study examined the association of hyperglycemia during pregnancy and anthropometry in 5- to 7-year-old offspring whose mothers participated in the Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes (HAPO) Study at the Belfast Centre.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Women in the HAPO study underwent a 75-g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) at approximately 28 weeks of gestation. Mothers and caregivers remained blinded to the results unless the fasting plasma glucose (FPG) concentration was >5.8 mmol/L or the 2-h plasma glucose (2hPG) concentration was >11.1 mmol/L. Offspring weight, height, and skin-fold thicknesses (triceps, subscapular, and suprailiac) were measured at age 5-7 years. Overweight, obesity, and extreme obesity were defined as a BMI z score ≥85th, ≥95th, and ≥99th percentile, respectively, based on the 1990 British Growth Standard.

RESULTS: Belfast HAPO offspring (n = 1,320, 82%) aged 5-7 years attended for follow-up. Using multiple regression, maternal FPG, 1h PG, and 2hPG did not show any relation to offspring BMI z score or offspring skin-fold sum independent of maternal BMI at OGTT and offspring birth weight z score. This lack of association with maternal glycemia persisted with the offspring BMI z score expressed as ≥85th, ≥95th, or 99th percentile, and the sum of skin folds expressed as ≥90th percentile specific for sex. The initially significant relation between FPG and all offspring adiposity measures was explained by maternal BMI at the OGTT.

CONCLUSIONS: After adjustment for maternal BMI at the OGTT, higher maternal FPG concentration during pregnancy (short of diabetes) is no longer a risk factor for obesity, as reflected by BMI and the sum of skin folds in offspring aged 5-7 years.

The E3 ubiquitin ligase Pellino3 protects against obesity-induced inflammation and insulin resistance

Diet-induced obesity can induce low-level inflammation and insulin resistance. Interleukin-1β (IL-1β) is one of the key proinflammatory cytokines that contributes to the generation of insulin resistance and diabetes, but the mechanisms that regulate obesity-driven inflammation are ill defined. Here we found reduced expression of the E3 ubiquitin ligase Pellino3 in human abdominal adipose tissue from obese subjects and in adipose tissue of mice fed a high-fat diet and showing signs of insulin resistance. Pellino3-deficient mice demonstrated exacerbated high-fat-diet-induced inflammation, IL-1β expression, and insulin resistance. Mechanistically, Pellino3 negatively regulated TNF receptor associated 6 (TRAF6)-mediated ubiquitination and stabilization of hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF1α), resulting in reduced HIF1α-induced expression of IL-1β. Our studies identify a regulatory mechanism controlling diet-induced insulin resistance by highlighting a critical role for Pellino3 in regulating IL-1β expression with implications for diseases like type 2 diabetes.

Multigenerational Undernutrition Increases Susceptibility to Obesity and Diabetes that Is Not Reversed after Dietary Recuperation

People in developing countries have faced multigenerational undernutrition and are currently undergoing major lifestyle changes, contributing to an epidemic of metabolic diseases, though the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Using a Wistar rat model of undernutrition over 50 generations, we show that Undernourished rats exhibit low birth-weight, high visceral adiposity (DXA/MRI), and insulin resistance (hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamps), compared to age-/gender-matched control rats. Undernourished rats also have higher circulating insulin, homocysteine, endotoxin and leptin levels, lower adiponectin, vitamin B12 and folate levels, and an 8-fold increased susceptibility to Streptozotocin-induced diabetes compared to control rats. Importantly, these metabolic abnormalities are not reversed after two generations of unrestricted access to commercial chow (nutrient recuperation). Altered epigenetic signatures in insulin-2 gene promoter region of Undernourished rats are not reversed by nutrient recuperation, and may contribute to the persistent detrimental metabolic profiles in similar multigenerational undernourished human populations.

Overweight and obesity on the island of Ireland: an estimation of costs

Objectives The increasing prevalence of overweight and obesity worldwide continues to compromise population health and creates a wider societal cost in terms of productivity loss and premature mortality. Despite extensive international literature on the cost of overweight and obesity, findings are inconsistent between Europe and the USA, and particularly within Europe. Studies vary on issues of focus, specific costs and methods. This study aims to estimate the healthcare and productivity costs of overweight and obesity for the island of Ireland in 2009, using both top-down and bottom-up approaches.

Methods Costs were estimated across four categories: healthcare utilisation, drug costs, work absenteeism and premature mortality. Healthcare costs were estimated using Population Attributable Fractions (PAFs). PAFs were applied to national cost data for hospital care and drug prescribing. PAFs were also applied to social welfare and national mortality data to estimate productivity costs due to absenteeism and premature mortality.

Results The healthcare costs of overweight and obesity in 2009 were estimated at €437 million for the Republic of Ireland (ROI) and €127.41 million for NI. Productivity loss due to overweight and obesity was up to €865 million for ROI and €362 million for NI. The main drivers of healthcare costs are cardiovascular disease, type II diabetes, colon cancer, stroke and gallbladder disease. In terms of absenteeism, low back pain is the main driver in both jurisdictions, and for productivity loss due to premature mortality the primary driver of cost is coronary heart disease.

Conclusions The costs are substantial, and urgent public health action is required in Ireland to address the problem of increasing prevalence of overweight and obesity, which if left unchecked will lead to unsustainable cost escalation within the health service and unacceptable societal costs.

Molecular mechanisms mediating the beneficial metabolic effects of [Arg4]tigerinin-1R in mice with diet-induced obesity and insulin resistance

The frog skin host-defense peptide tigerinin-1R stimulates insulin release in vitro and improves glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity in animal models of type 2 diabetes. This study extends these observation by investigating the molecular mechanisms of action underlying the beneficial metabolic effects of the analogue [Arg4]tigerinin-1R in mice with diet induced obesity, glucose intolerance and insulin resistance. The study also investigates the electrophysiological effects of the peptide on KATP and L-type Ca2+ channels in BRINBD11 clonal β cells. Non-fasting plasma glucose and glucagon concentrations were significantly (P<0.05) decreased and plasma insulin increased by twice daily treatment with [Arg4]tigerinin-1R (75 nmol.kg-1 body weight) for 28 days. Oral and intraperitoneal glucose tolerance were significantly (P < 0.05) improved accompanied by enhanced secretion and action of insulin. The peptide blocked KATP channels and, consistent with this, improved beta cell responses of isolated islets to a range of secretagogues. Peptide administration resulted in up-regulation of key functional genes in islets involved insulin secretion (Abcc8, Kcnj11, Cacna1c and Slc2a2) and in skeletal muscle involved with insulin action (Insr, Irs1, Pdk1, Pik3ca, and Slc2a4). These observations encourage further development of tigerinin-1R analogues for the treatment of patients with type 2 diabetes.