Improving taro (Colocasia esculenta var. esculenta) production using biotechnological approaches

Taro (Colocasia esculenta L. Schott) is an important crop worldwide but is of particular significance in many Pacific Island countries where it forms part of the staple diet and serves as an export commodity. Escalating pest and disease problems are jeopardizing taro production with serious implications to food security and trade. Biotechnological approaches to addressing pest and disease problems, such as somatic embryogenesis and transgenesis, are potentially viable options. However, despite biotechnological advancements in higher profile agronomic crops, such progress in relation to Colocasia esculenta var. esculenta has been slow. This paper reviews taro biology, highlights the cultural and economic significance of taro in Pacific Island countries and discusses the progress made towards the molecular breeding of this important crop to date.

Initiation of embryogenic cell suspensions of taro (Colocasia esculenta var. esculenta) and plant regeneration

Embryogenic callus was initiated by culturing in vitro taro corm slices on agar-solidified half-strength MS medium containing 2.0 mg/L 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) for 20 days followed by transfer to 1.0 mg/L thidiazuron (TDZ). Callus was subsequently proliferated on solid medium containing 1.0 mg/L TDZ, 0.5 mg/L 2,4- D and 800 mg/L glutamine before transfer to liquid medium containing the same components but with reduced glutamine (100 mg/L). After 3 months in liquid culture on an orbital shaker, cytoplasmically dense cell aggregates began to form. Somatic embryogenesis was induced by plating suspension cells onto solid media containing reduced levels of hormones (0.1 mg/L TDZ, 0.05 mg/L 2,4-D), high concentrations of sucrose (40–50 g/L) and biotin (1.0 mg/L). Embryo maturation and germination was then induced on media containing 0.05 mg/L benzyladenine (BA) and 0.1 mg/L indole-3-acetic acid (IAA). Histological studies of the developing embryos revealed the presence of typical shoot and root poles suggesting that these structures were true somatic embryos. The rate of somatic embryos formation was 500–3,000 per mL settledcell volume while approximately 60% of the embryos regenerated into plants.

Assessment and rationalization of genetic diversity of Papua New Guinea taro (Colocasia esculenta) using SSR DNA fingerprinting

Taro (Colocasia esculenta) accessions were collected from 15 provinces of Papua New Guinea (PNG). The collection, totalling 859 accessions was collated for characterization and a core collection of 81 accessions (10%) was established on the basis of characterization data generated on 30 agro-morphological descriptors, and DNA fingerprinting using seven SSR primers. The selection of accessions was based on cluster analysis of the morphological data enabling initial selection of 20% accessions. The 20% sample was then reduced and rationalized to 10% based on molecular data generated by SSR primers. This represents the first national core collection of any species established in PNG based on molecular markers. The core has been integrated with core from other Pacific Island countries, contributing to a Pacific regional core collection, which is conserved in vitro in the South Pacific Regional Germplasm Centre at Fiji. The core collection is a valuable resource for food security of the South Pacific region and is currently being utilized by the breeding programmes of small Pacific Island countries to broaden the genetic base of the crop.

Competition of sorghum cultivars and densities with Japanese millet (Echinochloa esculenta).

Field studies were conducted at two locations in southern Queensland, Australia during the 2003-2004 and 2004-2005 growing seasons to determine the differential competitiveness of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) cultivars and crop densities against weeds and the sorghum yield loss due to weeds. Weed competition was investigated by growing sorghum in the presence or absence of a model grass weed, Japanese millet (Echinochloa esculenta). The correlation analyses showed that the early growth traits (height, shoot biomass, and daily growth rate of the shoot biomass) of sorghum adversely affected the height, biomass, and seed production of millet, as measured at maturity. "MR Goldrush" and "Bonus MR" were the most competitive cultivars, resulting in reduced weed biomass, weed density, and weed seed production. The density of sorghum also had a significant effect on the crop's ability to compete with millet. When compared to the density of 4.5 plants per m2, sorghum that was planted at 7.5 plants per m2 suppressed the density, biomass, and seed production of millet by 22%, 27% and 38%, respectively. Millet caused a significant yield loss in comparison with the weed-free plots. The combined weed-suppressive effects of the competitive cultivars, such as MR Goldrush, and high crop densities minimized the yield losses from the weeds. These results indicate that sorghum competition against grass weeds can be improved by choosing competitive cultivars and by using a high crop density of > 7.5 plants per m2. These non-chemical options should be included in an integrated weed management program for better weed management, particularly where the control options are limited by the evolution of herbicide resistance.

Efecto de dos condiciones de humedad del suelo y tiempo de cosecha sobre el rendimiento de malanga (Colocasia esculenta L. Schott) para exportacion, Boaco - Nicaragua 2011

La malanga ( Colocasia esculenta. (L.) Schott) , familia Aráceae, es el tubérculo de mayor exportación en Nicaragua, pero es escasa la información sobre su agrotecnia. Se evaluó el efecto que tienen el tiempo de cosecha y dos condiciones de humedad del suelo sobre el rendimiento de Malanga Lila para exportación. Se establecieron dos ensayos. En el ensayo I se evaluó el efecto de cosechar las plantas a los 7 meses (7M) y 9 meses (9M) en suelo seco. Se establecieron 2 lotes de plantas de 0.7 ha cada uno, el primero en noviembre 2009 y el otro en enero 2010, ambos lotes cosechados en agosto 2010. En el ensayo II se evaluó el efecto de siembra en secano (7MS) y fangoso (7MF) sobre el rendimiento. En ambos ensayos se establecieron cuatro submuestras de 10 plantas (observaciones) por lote. En el Ensayo I se evaluaron variables morfológicas a 127, 150, 180 y 215 días después de la siembra (dds) en relación a plantas 9MS y a los 96, 120, 150 y 185 dds a plantas 7M. El ensayo II se evaluó de igual forma que las plastas 7M del ensayo I. A los datos de las variables morfológicas se realizó la prueba de T-Student y las de rendimiento un ANDEVA. Se determinó la incidencia del Virus del Mosaico del Dasheen (DsMV) mediante la prueba ELISA, se evaluó la concentración de materia seca de los cormos de plantas madres. Las plantas 9M y 7M registraron valores de las variables morfológicas y rendimiento similares (45.15 y 42.47 t ha-1 respectivamente), el momento ó ptimo de cosecha es 9 meses. Las plantas 7MF crecieron más lentamente que las platas 7MS, las que no lograron el máximo desarrollo foliar y presentaron mayor incidencia de enfermedades fungosas y bacterianas en cormos, raíces y hojas. Las plantas de ambos ensayos mostraron síntomas del virus. Las plantas 7MF presentaron cormos alargados y menos anchos que las plantas 7MS.

Ensilaje de caña de azucar (Saccharum officinarum L.) y follaje de yuca (Manihot sculenta Crantz) influyen en el rendimiento y calidad de leche en vacas criollas

La producción lechera nicaragüense se obtiene básicamente de animales de doble propósito, lo que conlleva baja productividad. Para contrarrestar lo anterior, se diseñó un ensayo en la estación seca (verano) del año con el propósito de medir los cambios en la producción y la composición físico-química de la leche producida por vacas criollas en la comunidad de Chácara Seca, León, Nicaragua. Para alcanzar este objetivo, se utilizó alimentación suplementaria de ensilaje a base de caña de azúcar y follaje de yuca. Se seleccionaron 12 vacas criollas productoras de leche con peso promedio de 228 kilos y características genotípicas indefinidas, se arreglaron de acuerdo a un diseño cruzado (Cross Over Desing) con dos tratamientos. El tratamiento testigo consistente en pastoreo libre en potreros de jaragua y ordeño matutino y un tratamiento experimental consistente en el mismo manejo del anterior, más el suministro de 9 kilos de ensilado. Para la comparación de los tratamientos se hizo uso de la prueba de “t”.El análisis estadístico muestra que la tecnología utilizando ensilaje de caña y yuca es superior en cuanto a rendimiento de leche que el tratamiento testigo. Los resultados muestran que cuando se usa ensilado a base de caña de azúcar y yuca se incrementó la cantidad y se mejoró la calidad de la leche en relación con animales en pastoreo.

Influencia de la forma del corte apical y de la posición de la estaca, en la producción de raiz en yuca (Manihot utilissima polh)

Con el objeto de determinar si la posición y el corte en el extremo apical, influían en el rendimiento de la raíz de yuca, se hizo un ensayo en el cual se utilizaron tres posiciones diferentes: a) Horizontal, b) Inolinada y c) Vertical; con tres cortes diferentes en el extremo apical enterrado: 1) Redondo, 2) Chaflan y 3) Punta de lápiz. Se uso el diseño experimental de bloques completos al azar con arreglo de parcelas sub-divididas, empleándose seis repeticiones. La cosecha se hizo a los siente meses de la siembra, obteniéndose la mayor producción con la interacción posición inclinada corte chaflan, la cual mostró diferencia significativa para uno por ciento de error. La posición de siembra influyo significativamente sobre el rendimiento de raíz de yuca; observándose que la posición inclinada fue la que facilito mas el cultivo. Se hizo dos labores de limpia en todo el periodo de ensayo. El porcentaje de enraizamiento de plantas, altura de plantas numero de raíces, tamaño de raíces y no mostraron diferencias estadísticas significativas. Este ensayo se realizo en los campos de la Escuela Nacional de Agricultura y Ganadería (ENAG), durante el periodo de julio de 1968 a febrero de 1969. La variedad empleada fue la Cubana, cortándose para este estacas de cuarenta a cuarenta y cinco centímetros de longitud de todo el tallo, con excepción de la parte muy cerca de la raíz y la muy tierna cerca del extremo a pical.

Estudio de la densidad de población en el cultivo de yuca (Manihot utilissima (Pohl)

El presente ensayo se realizo en el Centro de Diversificación Agrícola "Campos Azules", Masatepe, durante los meses de julio de 1970 a mayo de 1971. Se estudiaron las combinaciones posibles de distancias de 0.50, 1.00 metro entre matas de una sola planta. Se utilizo la variedad Cubana que se emplea tanto en la alimentación humana como en la industria. El diseño experimental usado fue de bloques al azar con arreglo de parcelas dividida con cuatro repeticiones. Las plantas alcanzaron mayor altura cuando las densidades de población fueron mayores. Se observo que a mayores distancias se obtienen mayor numero de raíces por planta y de mayor longitud. Con la combinación de 0.50 x 0.25 metros se obtuvo el mayor rendimiento de raíz consistente en 25 toneladas por hectárea. El estudio de costos de producción, demostró que con distancias de 1.00 metros entre surcos por 0.75 metro entre matas de una sola planta se obtiene el mayor beneficio económico; con el tratamiento 1.50 x 1.00 metro se logra la menor inversión y un beneficio/costo tan alto como el obtenido con el tratamiento 1.00 x 0.75 metros.

Ensayo comparativo de cuatro herbicidas en el cultivo de la yuca (Manihot utilissima Polh)

Con el objetivo de estudiar el comportamiento de varios herbicidas sobre el control de malezas en el cultivo de la yuca, se llevo a efecto un ensayo en los suelos de la Escuela Nacional de Agricultura y Ganadería en Nicaragua. Al mismo tiempo se estudio la factibilidad económica del empleo de estos herbicidas. La evaluación se hizo en base a peso de las raíces de yuca al momento de la cosecha. También se uso una escala visual y el numero de especies de malezas por parcela. Todos los herbicidas se aplicaron de presiembra en tres dosis. Se presentaron diferencias significativas entre los herbicidas, pero no entre las dosis de estos, ni en la interacción de los herbicidas y las dosis. Gesagard en dosis de 1.0 kilogramos por hectárea de material activo produjo una ganancia neta de C209,20 por hectárea. El Karmer en dosis de 0,53 kilogramos por hectárea de material activo produjo una ganancia de C123,30 por hectárea, mientras que Treflan y Gesaprim resultaron antieconomicos produciendo perdidas de C24,15 y C177,20 respectivamente. Gesagard y Gesaprim en sus tres dosis controlaron totalmente las malezas de hoja ancha. Gesapard permitió el desarrollo normal del cultivo, mientras que Gesaprim produjo efectos fitotoxicos sobre el cultivo. Karmex y Treflan no controlaron malezas de hoja ancha como Euphorbia spp. (golondrina), Argemon mexicana (cerdo santo), Phylantus niruri (huevos de rana), Portulaca oleracea (verdolega), Euphorbia scabrella, Amaranthus spinosos (bledo) y Physalis ixocarpa (popa), ni malezas de hojas angostas como Cyperus rotundus (coyolillo), Cenchrus equinatus (mozote) y Cynodon dactilon Pers. (pasto bermuda). En Treflan se noto que no ejerció ningún buen control los primeros treinta días y luego se comporto como un tratamiento regular.

Studies on the nutritional value of cassava (Manihot utillisima) peels as energy source in the diet of Oreochromis niloticus fry fed in indoor glass aquaria

This study, though, has as its core objective cost reduction in aquaculture nutrition was equally designed to investigate the value of the peels of cassava (Manihot utillisima) as energy source in the diet of Oreochromis niloticus fry. Three levels of cassava peels diet and a control (100% yellow maize in the carbohydrate mixture) was prepared and tested on O. niloticus fry for ten (10) weeks. The fry with mean weight of 0.32g were grouped fifteen (15) in each of the glass aquaria measuring 60x30x30cm with a maximum capacity of 52 litres of water. The fry were fed twice daily at 10% biomass. Weekly, the fry were weighed to determine the weight increment or otherwise and the quality of feed adjusted accordingly. Water quality parameters like temperature, pH and dissolved oxygen (D.0) were monitored and found to be at desirable level. DT 3 (97 % cassava peels and 3% yellow maize) in the carbohydrate mixture gave the best growth performance. The fry fed, this diet gained mean weight of 1.18g for the period of the experiment. However, the poorest performance in terms of growth was from fry fed the control diet (100%yellow maize in the carbohydrate mixture) fry fed this diet gained mean weight of 0.80 for the duration of the experiment. Analysis of the various growth indices like SGR, PER, FCR and NPU shows that DT3 was the overall best diet with an SGR value of2.40 and FCR of 43.83. However, DT 1 (70% cassava peels and 30% yellow maize) gave the poorest SGR of 1.61 and FCR of 67.58. The difference in weight gain among the fry fed the three levels of cassava peels diet and the control was not statically significant (P>0.05)

Yield isopleths of Tilapia esculenta Graham 1928 in Lake Victoria and Tilapia nilotica (Linnaeus) 1757 in Lake Albert

The yield equation given by BEVERTON and HOLT (1957) has several parameters which are difficult to estimate for tropical freshwater fish species. Nevertheless, some simplifying assumptions can be made and the most relevant parameters used to enable the construction of yield isopleths. Tilapia esculenfa has the following parameters: maximum length (L ∞=33.8 c.m. growth rate (K) = 0.32, natural mortality rate (M)=0.17 and the length at maturity (1 m)=22 cm. The optimum yield is obtained by catching the fish at a length of first capture of 26 em and a fishing mortality rate of 0.5. Tilapia nilotica with L ∞=49 cm, 1 m=36 cm, K=0.50 and M= 0.30 gives optimum yield when caught at a length of first capture of 35-36 cm with a fishing mortality rate of 0.5-0.6. The stuned Tilapia nilotica of Lake Albert has L ∞=17 cm, K=2.77,1 m=12 cm and M=3.37. With such a very high natural mortality, maximum yields would be obtained hy using a length of first capture less than 9 cm and a fishing mortality rate exceeding 1.8.

Preliminary observations on cage culture of Tilapia esculenta Graham and Tilapia xillii (Gervais) in Lake Victoria waters, at the Freshwater Fisheries Institute, Nyegezi, Tanzania

Cage culture of Tilapia is not suggested as a substitute for any known techniques in fish culture, but as one of the various techniques of obtaining more fish under controlled conditions. This fact has been very well accepted in various countries. Whererever facilities exist, this line of fish culture should be vigorously explored as a possible avenue in increasing fish production. High density stocking, management under controlled conditions, easy technique of fabricating the cage at relatively low cost, having no demand on land area, absence of prolific and effective breeding and easy availability of fish when a person needs it are a few of the attractions of the technique. The studies indicate that it is desirable to have different meshes for the cages, such as, small meshed cages for rearing fry to fingerlings stages, and larger meshed cages for rearing fingerlings to table sized fishes. II' the meshes are small, the resistance will be more and less water wilt pass through. While feeding with powdered food material, because of brisk activity of feeding fish, a part of the feed appeared wasted. This can be easily overcome if we would resort to feeding fish with cheap pelleted feeds which will no doubt reduce wastage. Precaution has to be taken against damage of the net and thereby loss of fish and against poaching by unauthorised persons. In the present attempt has been demonstrated the possibility of utilizing locally available species of Tilapia for cage culture and obtaining moderately satisfactory growth rates.

Growth rates of Tilapia esculenta (Graham) and Tilapia zillii (Gervais) under cultivation in ponds at Nyegezi, Tanzania

Aquaculture in Tanzania is still on a subsistence level and most of the ponds are maintained as part time job. The ponds are too small, shallow and over crowded with stunted Tilapia spp. In the present paper the results of experiments conducted in ponds at Nyegezi with T. esculenta and T. zillii are presented. This was part of an overall project of developing techniques of fish cultures with Tilapia under the limited existing conditions at Nyegezi. In a mono - species culture experiement with Tilapia zillii in nine month's time an average size of 172.8 mm/115.0 g was attained. In another experiment with T. zillii and T. esculenta in thirteen month's time, T. zillii attained an average size of 180.2mm/106.6 g and T. esculenta 193.6 mm/118.8 g. In another experiment with intensive feeding schedule an average size of 179.3 mm/126.6 g was attained by T. zillii and 191.0 mm/125.0 g by T. esculenta in four month's time. A locally prepared supplimentary feed with local Brewery Waste and Fish Meal (10:1) was readily accepted by both species of Tilapia. T. zillii voraciously fed on Cabbage leaves, Cauliflower leaves, Chinese cabbage leaves, Cassava leaves and on the common weed Comalina sp. Though all the items mentioned above were readily accepted by T. zillii feeding with Comaltna sp. was the easiest and most convenient because of its availability. In an intensive feeding experiment with vegetable leaves/Comalina sp. and the locally prepared supplimentary feed the fishes attained table size in four months time. Cement cistens of 5 X 3 X 1½ m size could be conveniently used for breeding both species of Tilapia. T. zillii had semi adhesive eggs and they were deposited on the sides of the cement wall. The number of young ones in a brood ranged from 160 to 314 in T. esculenta and 687 to 4,356 in T. zillii.

A close phylogenetic relationship between Sipuncula and Annelida evidenced from the complete mitochondrial genome sequence of Phascolosoma esculenta

Background: There are many advantages to the application of complete mitochondrial (mt) genomes in the accurate reconstruction of phylogenetic relationships in Metazoa. Although over one thousand metazoan genomes have been sequenced, the taxonomic sampling is highly biased, left with many phyla without a single representative of complete mitochondrial genome. Sipuncula (peanut worms or star worms) is a small taxon of worm-like marine organisms with an uncertain phylogenetic position. In this report, we present the mitochondrial genome sequence of Phascolosoma esculenta, the first complete mitochondrial genome of the phylum. Results: The mitochondrial genome of P. esculenta is 15,494 bp in length. The coding strand consists of 32.1% A, 21.5% C, 13.0% G, and 33.4% T bases (AT = 65.5%; AT skew = -0.019; GC skew = -0.248). It contains thirteen protein-coding genes (PCGs) with 3,709 codons in total, twenty-two transfer RNA genes, two ribosomal RNA genes and a non-coding AT-rich region (AT = 74.2%). All of the 37 identified genes are transcribed from the same DNA strand. Compared with the typical set of metazoan mt genomes, sipunculid lacks trnR but has an additional trnM. Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian analyses of the protein sequences show that Myzostomida, Sipuncula and Annelida (including echiurans and pogonophorans) form a monophyletic group, which supports a closer relationship between Sipuncula and Annelida than with Mollusca, Brachiopoda, and some other lophotrochozoan groups. Conclusion: This is the first report of a complete mitochondrial genome as a representative within the phylum Sipuncula. It shares many more similar features with the four known annelid and one echiuran mtDNAs. Firstly, sipunculans and annelids share quite similar gene order in the mitochondrial genome, with all 37 genes located on the same strand; secondly, phylogenetic analyses based on the concatenated protein sequences also strongly support the sipunculan + annelid clade (including echiurans and pogonophorans). Hence annelid "key-characters" including segmentation may be more labile than previously assumed.