Interleukin-6-deficient mice are highly susceptible to Giardia lamblia infection but exhibit normal intestinal immunoglobulin A responses against the parasite.

In the present study, interleukin-6 (IL-6)-deficient mice were infected with Giardia lamblia clone GS/M-83-H7. Murine IL-6 deficiency did not affect the synthesis of parasite-specific intestinal immunoglobulin A. However, in contrast to wild-type mice, IL-6-deficient animals were not able to control the acute phase of parasite infection. Reverse transcription-PCR-based quantitation of cytokine mRNA levels in peripheral lymph node cells exhibited a short-term up-regulation of IL-4 expression in IL-6-deficient mice that seemed to be associated with failure in controlling the parasite population. This observation suggests a further elucidation of IL-4-dependent, Th2-type regulatory processes regarding their potential to influence the course of G. lamblia infection in the experimental murine host.

Use of a novel DNA melting profile assay for the identification of PCR-amplified genomic sequences encoding for variant-specific surface proteins from the clonal GS/M-83-H7 line of Giardia lamblia.

During infections, Giardia lamblia undergoes a continuous change of its major surface antigens, the variant-specific surface proteins (VSPs). Many studies on antigenic variation have been performed using G. lamblia clone GS/M-83-H7, which expresses surface antigen VSP H7. The present study was focused on the identification and characterization of vsp gene sequences within the genome of the clonal G. lamblia GS/M-83-H7 line. For this purpose, we applied a PCR which specifically amplified truncated sequences from the 3'-terminal region of the vsp genes. Upon cloning, most of the vsp gene amplification products were shown to be approximately identical in size and thus could not be distinguished from each other by conventional gel electrophoresis. In order to pre-estimate the sequence complexity within the large panel of vsp clones isolated, we elaborated a novel concept which facilitated our large-scale genetic screening approach: PCR products from cloned DNA molecules were generated and then subjected to a DNA melting profile assay based on the use of the LightCycler Instrument. This high-throughput assay system proved to be well suited to monitor sequence differences between the amplification products from closely related vsp genes and thus could be used for the primary, sequence-related discrimination of the corresponding clones. After testing 50 candidates, vsp clones could be divided into five groups, each characterized by an individual DNA melting profile of the corresponding amplification products. Sequence analysis of some of these 50 candidates confirmed data from the aforementioned assay in that clones were demonstrated to be identical within, but different between, the distinct groups. The nucleotide and deduced amino acid sequences of five representative vsp clones showed high similarities both among each other and also with the corresponding gene segment of the variant-specific surface antigen (VSP H7) expressed by the original GS/M-83-H7 variant type. Furthermore, three of the genomic vsp sequences turned out to be identical to vsp sequences that represented previously characterized transcription products from in vivo- or in vitro-switched GS/M-83-H7 trophozoites. In conclusion, the DNA melting profile assay seems to be a versatile tool for the PCR-based genotyping of moderately or highly diversified sequence orthologues.

Molecular characterisation of a predominant antigenic region of Giardia lamblia variant surface protein H7.

During infection, the intestinal protozoan parasite Giardia lamblia undergoes continuous antigenic variation which is determined by diversification of the parasite's major surface antigen, named VSP (variant surface protein). One member from this protein family, VSP H7, is expressed by G. lamblia clone GS/M-83-H7. In the present study, we characterised a highly antigenic portion of VSP H7 which is positioned inside a 130 amino acid C-terminal region of the protein. This region overlaps with a cysteine-rich motif that is rather conserved within the VSP family. Detailed molecular dissection of the antigenic portion monitored a 12 amino acid peptidyl structure which constitutes a non-conformational epitope of VSP H7. In the murine host, this epitope is recognised relatively early (before day 10 p.i.) during infection and stimulates a strong intestinal immunoglobulin A response. At late infective stages (after day 10 p.i.) this immune reaction is progressively complemented by reactions against 'late' antigenic epitopes which are also located inside the 130 amino acid antigenic portion but in closer proximity to the C-terminal end of VSP H7 than the 12 amino acid epitope. Both the high antigenicity and the conserved character suggest that the 12 amino acid epitope is a key factor within the immunological interplay between G. lamblia and the experimental murine host.

[Tritrichomonas fetus: a new intestinal parasite in Swiss cats]

Recent reports identified Tritrichomonas fetus, the causative agent of bovine trichomonosis, in cats with large-bowel diarrhea in the US. Between July 2007 and August 2008, a total of 105 Swiss cats were tested for T. fetus with the InPouchTM culture system and/or PCR, whereof 27 (26%) yielded positive results. All positive cats were pedigree cats, whereof 22 (81%) were less than 1 year of age (median 5 months). 25 (93%) of these cats lived in multi-cat households, and all but one were kept indoor. The clinical picture was dominated by large bowel diarrhea with increased frequency of defecation and fresh blood and mucus. Furthermore, inflamed anus and fecal incontinence was common. 52% of the T. fetus-positive cats were tested positive for Giardia before, but the treatment with fenbendazole or metronidazole only temporarily alleviated the clinical signs. The treatment with 30 mg/kg of ronidazole q12h p.o. was successful in all but 1 cat with only minor transient adverse effects in 3 cats. In conclusion, T. fetus has to be considered an important causative agent of large bowel diarrhea in cats in Switzerland, especially in young indoor pedigree cats.

Thioureides of 2-(phenoxymethyl)benzoic acid 4-R substituted: a novel class of anti-parasitic compounds

Fifty members of a novel class of antimicrobial compounds, 2-(4-R-phenoxymethyl)benzoic acid thioureides, were synthesized and characterized with respect to their activities against three parasites of human relevance, namely the protozoa Giardia lamblia and Toxoplasma gondii, and the larval (metacestode) stage of the tapeworm Echinococcus multilocularis. To determine the selective toxicity of these compounds, the human colon cancer cell line Caco2 and primary cultures of human foreskin fibroblasts (HFF) were also investigated. The new thioureides were obtained in a three-step-reaction process and subsequently characterized by their physical constants (melting point, solubility). The chemical structures were elucidated by (1)H NMR, (13)C NMR, IR spectral methods and elemental analysis. The analyses confirmed the final and intermediate compound structures and the synthesis. The compounds were then tested on the parasites in vitro. All thioureides, except two compounds with a nitro group, were totally ineffective against Giardia lamblia. 23 compounds inhibited the proliferation of T. gondii, three of them with an IC(50) of approximately 1 microM. The structural integrity of E. multilocularis metacestodes was affected by 22 compounds. In contrast, HFF were not susceptible to any of these thioureides, while Caco2 cells were affected by 17 compounds, two of them inhibiting proliferation with an IC(50) in the micromolar range. Thioureides may thus present a promising class of anti-infective agents.

Genome profiling of sterol synthesis shows convergent evolution in parasites and guides chemotherapeutic attack

Sterols are an essential class of lipids in eukaryotes, where they serve as structural components of membranes and play important roles as signaling molecules. Sterols are also of high pharmacological significance: cholesterol-lowering drugs are blockbusters in human health, and inhibitors of ergosterol biosynthesis are widely used as antifungals. Inhibitors of ergosterol synthesis are also being developed for Chagas's disease, caused by Trypanosoma cruzi. Here we develop an in silico pipeline to globally evaluate sterol metabolism and perform comparative genomics. We generate a library of hidden Markov model-based profiles for 42 sterol biosynthetic enzymes, which allows expressing the genomic makeup of a given species as a numerical vector. Hierarchical clustering of these vectors functionally groups eukaryote proteomes and reveals convergent evolution, in particular metabolic reduction in obligate endoparasites. We experimentally explore sterol metabolism by testing a set of sterol biosynthesis inhibitors against trypanosomatids, Plasmodium falciparum, Giardia, and mammalian cells, and by quantifying the expression levels of sterol biosynthetic genes during the different life stages of T. cruzi and Trypanosoma brucei. The phenotypic data correlate with genomic makeup for simvastatin, which showed activity against trypanosomatids. Other findings, such as the activity of terbinafine against Giardia, are not in agreement with the genotypic profile.