Associations of physical activity with body weight and fat in men and women

OBJECTIVE: Increasing physical activity is strongly advocated as a key public health strategy for weight gain prevention. We investigated associations of leisure-time physical activity (LTPA) and occupational/domestic physical activity with body mass index (BMI) and a skinfold-derived index of body fat (sum of six skinfolds), among normal-weight and overweight men and women.

DESIGN: Analyses of cross-sectional self-report and measured anthropometric data.

SUBJECTS: A total of 1302 men and women, aged 18-78 y, who were part of a randomly selected sample and who agreed to participate in a physical health assessment.

MEASUREMENTS: Self-report measures of physical activity, measured height and weight, and a skinfold-derived index of body fatness.

RESULTS: Higher levels of LTPA were positively associated with the likelihood of being in the normal BMI and lower body fat range for women, but few or no associations were found for men. No associations were found between measures of occupational/domestic activity and BMI or body fat for men or women.

CONCLUSION: By using a skinfold sum as a more direct measure of adiposity, this study extends and confirms the previous research that has shown an association between BMI and LTPA. Our results suggest gender differences in the relationship of leisure-time physical activity with body fatness. These findings, in conjunction with a better understanding of the causes of such differences, will have important public health implications for the development and targeting of weight gain prevention strategies.

Playing their part: the role of physical activity and sport in sustaining the health and well being of small rural communities

It is widely recognised that the health of rural Australians is poor in comparison with their urban counterparts. Similarly, the role played by physical activity in maintaining health has been well researched and is well documented. However, little appears to have been published in recent years about the links between physical activity and health in rural communities. The objective of this article was to begin to address that gap. To achieve this, the article drew on research conducted in two small rural communities in Victoria Australia, and highlighted the role that physical activity and sport played in sustaining the health and wellbeing of individuals and communities in rural areas. Taking the World Health Organisation's definition of health (a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease) as its measure, the paper highlighted the many ways in which physical activity and sport in rural communities contribute to physical health, mental wellbeing and social cohesiveness. Based this finding, the authors suggest that physical activity and sport make a significant contribution to the health and wellbeing of rural people and their communities and suggest that further research is necessary to better define this apparent contribution.

Changes to (primary) school recess and their effect on children's physical activity: an Australian perspective

Headlines greet us on almost a daily basis lamenting the declining health of Australian children. They are said to be inactive, unfit, overweight and lacking in fundamental motor skills. It is a disturbing picture. Calls have gone out to parents to encourage their children to be more active and for schools to counter these problems by allocating more time to sport and physical education however, in both instances, there are particular problems to be addressed. One aspect of schooling that is rarely considered in discussions about how to increase children's activity levels is recess. This article examines the problems facing physical education and offers some suggestions as to how schools might preserve and promote physical activity during recess breaks.

Validity and reliability of a physical activity recall instrument among overweight and non-overweight men and women

This study examined the validity and reliability of survey items measuring one-week recall of physical activity (PA) and examined differences by weight status. A sub-aim of the study was to objectively assess the intensity of activity that most closely matches self-report. A questionnaire was administered to adults twice, three days apart. It was again administered after subjects wore a MTI/CSA accelerometer for seven days (n = 118). Several metabolic equivalent (MET) thresholds were applied to the accelerometer data. Agreement between test and re- test estimates of sufficient physical activity for health benefits (150 min/week) was high (% agreement > 90%). Correlations (rho) between total reported PA (mins/day) and accelerometer data were 0.29 (p < 0.05) among men and 0.25 (p < 0.05) among women. Among men, self- reported duration of moderate PA (3-5.9 METS) and accelerometer data were significantly correlated (rho = 0.40, p < 0.01), with no differences by weight status. Among women, a significant relationship was found only for those who were not overweight (rho = 0.52, p < 0.001). A significant correlation between self-reported duration of vigorous PA (6+ METS) and accelerometer data was only found for overweight men (rho = 0.40, p < 0.05). When lower MET thresholds were applied to the accelerometer data, women's reported duration of moderate-intensity PA was most strongly correlated with moderate PA (accelerometer) defined as 2.0-5.9 METS (rho = 0.39, p < 0.01). The recall instrument provides a consistent measure of physical activity and validation coefficients were similar to those obtained for other physical activity recall questionnaires. However, the ability to measure PA by self-report may vary by weight status.

Physical activity and sedentary behavior: a population-based study of barriers, enjoyment, and preference

The associations of physical activity and sedentary behavior with barriers, enjoyment, and preferences were examined in a population-based mail survey of 1,332 adults. Respondents reporting high enjoyment and preference for physical activity were more likely to report high levels of activity. Those reporting cost, the weather, and personal barriers to physical activity were less likely to be physically active. Preference for sedentary behavior was associated with the decreased likelihood of being physically active, and the weather as a barrier to physical activity was associated with the increased likelihood of sedentary behavior. These constructs can be used to examine individual and environmental influences on physical activity and sedentary behavior in specific populations and could inform the development of targeted interventions.

Too hot to trot? exploring potential links between climate change, physical activity and health

Based on an analysis of existing literature, this paper explores the links between climate change, physical activity and health. It highlights the importance of physical activity for health, explores current understandings of factors influencing participation in sport and physical activity, and develops some hypotheses about the ways in which climate change may impact on the factors influencing physical activity and thereby on the level of participation in physical activity. The paper argues that climate change has the potential to be a barrier to participation in physical activity, particularly in areas where temperatures are already relatively high, and that a reduction in physical activity across the population is likely to have detrimental health impacts. The need for research to clarify the nature and extent of the threat posed to physical activity participation is highlighted, as is the need to take into account the direct and indirect costs of any changes or reductions in physical activity in any assessment of the costs of climate change and/or its mitigation.

Do logbooks influence recall of physical activity in validation studies?

Purpose: To examine whether physical activity logbooks influence estimates of validity of 7-d recall physical activity questionnaires. Methods: A  convenience sample of 551 adults aged 18–75 yr wore an MTI  accelerometer for seven consecutive days and were then randomly administered two of four 7-d recall physical activity questionnaires that varied in length and format (Active Australia Survey (AAS), long and short  International Physical Activity Questionnaires (IPAQ-L and IPAQ-S), and Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS)). A subsample of 75% concurrently completed a physical activity logbook. Results: Correlations (rho) between self-reported and measured duration of moderate- and vigorous-intensity activity and total activity were similar among participants who received a logbook and those who did not for each of the four instruments. There was also no interaction between assessment method (survey, accelerometer) and the assignment of a logbook. For the IPAQ-L, however, variability in the difference between accelerometer data and responses to the vigorous items was smaller among those assigned a logbook (F = 4.128, df = 260, P = 0.043). Overall, there were no differences in percent agreement or kappa for participation in sufficient levels of physical activity according to receipt of a logbook for any of the surveys. Conclusion: The process of self-monitoring through completion of a logbook does not appear to influence estimates of validity for brief or long questionnaires with global questions. Whereas the magnitude of error in accuracy of recall of particular types of activity may be reduced by completion of a logbook that is similar in structure to the survey being validated, this does not appear to influence overall estimates of validity.

Evidence-based strategies to promote physical activity among children, adolescents and young adults: review and update

This paper updates evidence reviewed in the first edition of Getting Australia Active on effective physical activity (PA) intervention strategies among children, adolescents and young adults. Intervention studies published between 1999 and September 2003 were identified using electronic databases and hand searching. A total of 28 discrete studies were identified (31 papers). Six of nine studies reported significant effects on child or youth PA in school settings. Those that incorporated whole-of-school approaches including curriculum, policy and environmental strategies appeared to be more effective than those that incorporated curriculum-only approaches. Five of 10 studies with children and two of five studies with adolescents reported increased PA or decreased sedentary behaviour in other settings. Interventions that included contact with families generally appeared to be most effective. One study with adolescents provided some evidence of the potential effectiveness of interventions based in primary care. Two of four papers reported modest short-term results among young adults, including increased PA stage of change or a higher likelihood of being adequately physically active, but none showed any evidence of sustained increases in PA. There is an urgent need for additional studies examining interventions aimed at young adults. Across the three life stages, future studies should include objective PA measures, longer-term follow-up, larger sample sizes, a specific focus on PA (rather than weight) and culturally-specific strategies that build evidence in Australian populations. Future studies should target high risk groups and a broad range of settings and strategies focusing on reducing sedentary behaviours as well as increasing PA.

How feasible are healthy eating and physical activity for young women?

Objective: This study investigated young women’s perceptions of the feasibility of physical activity and healthy eating behaviours, and how these vary by socioeconomic status, domestic characteristics and weight status. Design: This population-based study used a mailed questionnaire to investigate perceptions of the feasibility of commonly recommended healthy eating and physical activity behaviours among a sample of young women. The feasibility of 29 physical activity behaviours (e.g. relating to frequency, intensity, duration, domain/setting) and 15 healthy eating behaviours (e.g. relating to location/setting, fruit and vegetable intake, fat/sugar intake) was assessed. Height, weight and sociodemographic details were also obtained. Setting: Nation-wide community-based survey. Subjects: A total of 445 women aged 18–32 years selected randomly from the Australian electoral roll. Results: Most women reported that they either were already engaged in many of the healthy eating behaviours or saw these as highly feasible. Many physical activity behaviours, on the other hand, were perceived as less feasible, particularly among women with children and women who were overweight. Conclusions: Health promotion messages and strategies aimed at increasing physical activity and healthy eating are unlikely to succeed unless they take into account perceptions that these behaviours are not feasible. For young women, this may involve promoting more time-effective, flexible ways of achieving recommended physical activity. Messages specifically targeted to women with children, and women who are overweight, are required.

Piloting the feasibility and effectiveness of print- and telephone-mediated interventions for promoting the adoption of physical activity in Australian adults

This study examined the feasibility and effectiveness for increasing physical activity of a print-based intervention, and a print- plus telephone-mediated intervention among mid-life and older Australian adults. A randomised controlled trial study design was used. In mid-2002, 66 adults (18 men, 48 women) aged 45–78 years, who identified themselves as underactive, were recruited through advertisements and word-of-mouth at two sites (Melbourne and Brisbane), and randomised to either the print or print-plus-telephone mediated intervention group. Participants in both groups attended an initial briefing session, and over the 12-week intervention period received an instructional newsletter and use of a pedometer (both groups), and individualised telephone calls (print-plus-telephone group only). Self-reported physical activity data were collected at baseline, 12 and 16 weeks. Measures of self-reported global physical activity, moderate-vigorous intensity activity and walking all showed increases between baseline and 12 weeks for both intervention groups. These increases were generally maintained by 16 weeks, although participants in the print-plus-telephone group maintained slightly higher levels of global reported activity and walking (by approximately 30 mins/wk) than those in the print group. These interventions show potential for promoting initial increases in physical activity among mid-life and older Australian adults, and should be evaluated across more extended time periods.

Children's perceptions of their home and neighborhood environments, and their association with objectively measured physical activity: A qualitative and quantitative study

Environmental factors may have an important influence on children’s physical activity, yet children’s perspectives of their home and neighborhood environments have not been widely assessed. The aim of this study was to investigate children’s perceptions of their environments, and to examine associations between these perceptions and objectively measured physical activity. The sample consisted of 147, 10-year-old Australian children, who drew maps of their home and neighborhood environments. A subsample of children photographed places and things in these environments that were important to them. The maps were analyzed for themes, and for the frequency with which particular objects and locations appeared. Physical activity was objectively measured using accelerometers. Six themes emerged from the qualitative analysis of the maps and photographs: the family home; opportunities for physical activity and sedentary pursuits; food items and locations; green space and outside areas; the school and opportunities for social interaction. Of the 11 variables established from these themes, one home and two neighborhood factors were associated with children’s physical activity. These findings contribute to a broader understanding of children’s perceptions of their environment, and highlight the potential importance of the home and neighborhood environments for promoting physical activity behavior.

Association of family environment with children's television viewing and with low level of physical activity

Objective: This study examined associations between the family environment and children's television (TV) viewing and likelihood of being low-active.
Research Methods and Procedures: In 2001, children were recruited from 19 primary schools in Melbourne, Australia. Parents completed a questionnaire about their child's TV viewing and the family environment. Children also completed a questionnaire and wore an accelerometer for 8 days. Movement counts were used to identify low-active children (lowest quartile). Data were analyzed in May 2004.
Results: The sample consisted of 878 children (mean age = 11.5 0.6 yrs). Multiple logistic regression revealed that socioeconomic status [adjusted odds ratios (AOR) = 0.4 boys], frequency families watched TV together (AOR = 2.0 boys), mothers' (AOR = 1.8 boys; AOR = 2.5 girls) and fathers' (AOR = 2.6 boys; AOR = 2.8 girls) TV viewing, and rules prohibiting TV during mealtimes (AOR = 0.6 boys; AOR = 0.6 girls) related to children watching TV 2 h/d. Variables associated with low-level physical activity included self-reported enjoyment of Internet use (AOR = 1.7 boys) and preference for watching TV (AOR = 2.3 girls), perception that mother uses computer a lot (AOR = 1.9 boys) and likes using the computer (AOR = 0.6 girls), fathers' reported computer/electronic games use (AOR = 1.7 girls), frequency families used computer together (AOR = 0.4 girls), rules that TV viewing must be supervised (AOR = 1.9 boys; AOR = 0.6 girls), and having pay TV (AOR = 0.6 boys) and electronic games at home (AOR = 2.6 boys).
Discussion: These findings suggest that the relationships between the family environment and TV viewing and low-level activity are complex and that these behaviors are distinct.

Trends in children`s physical activity and weight status in high and low socio-economic status areas of Melbourne, Victoria, 1985-2001

Objective:
To examine trends in active transport to and from school, in school sport and physical education (PE), and in weight status among children from high and low socio-economic status (SES) areas in Melbourne, Victoria, between 1985 and 2001.

Methods:
Cross-sectional survey data and measured height and weight from 1985 (n=557) and 2001 (n=926) were compared for children aged between 9–13 years within high and low SES areas.

Results:
From 1985 to 2001, the frequency of walking to or from school declined (4.38±4.3 vs. 3.61 ± 3.8 trips/wk, p<0.001), cycling to or from school also declined (1.22±2.9 vs. 0.36±1.5 trips/wk, p<0.001), and the frequency of PE lessons declined (1.64±1.1 vs. 1.18±0.9 lessons/wk, p<0.001). However, the frequency of school sport increased (0.9±1.22 vs. 1.24±0.8 sessions/wk, p<0.001). In 1985, 11.7% of children were overweight or obese compared with 28.7% in 2001 (p<0.001). Apart from walking to school and school sport, there were greater relative declines in cycling to school and PE, and increases in overweight and obesity among children attending schools in low SES areas compared with those attending schools in high SES areas.

Conclusions:
Declines in active school transport and PE have occurred at the same time as increases in overweight and obesity among Australian children.

Implications:
Promoting active school transport and maintaining school sport and PE should be important public health priorities in Australia. Current inequities in school sport and PE and in prevalence of overweight and obesity by area-level SES also need to be addressed.

Reducing sedentary behaviour and increasing physical activity among 10-year-old children: overview and process evaluation of the 'Switch-Play' intervention

Overweight and obesity has doubled among children in Australia. There is an urgent need to develop primary prevention strategies to prevent current and future unhealthy weight gain. The aims of this paper are to describe a randomized controlled trial (‘Switch-Play’) developed to prevent unhealthy weight gain among 10-year-old children and to report the findings of the process evaluation. Children from three government primary schools were randomized by class to one of four conditions: a behavioural modification group (BM; n = 69); a fundamental motor skills group (FMS; n = 73); a combined BM and FMS group (n = 90); or a control (usual classroom lessons) group (n = 61). Children in the BM group participated in 19 sessions that encouraged them to reduce screen-based behaviours, and identified physical activity alternatives. The FMS group participated in 19 lessons that focused on mastery of six skills: run, throw, dodge, strike, vertical jump and kick. The combined group participated in all the BM and FMS activities. The intervention specialist teacher reported that the children showed high enjoyment and engagement (88% lessons attended) in most aspects of the programme. At-home tasks were completed by 57–62% of the children, and 92% completed the in-class tasks. Two-thirds of the children in the BM group participated in the behavioural contracting to switch off the TV. Most of the children reported high enjoyment of the programmes, and only a small proportion (7–17%) reported difficulties in switching off their nominated TV shows. More than half the children reported reducing their TV viewing; however, less than half reported increasing their physical activity. It was found that most aspects of the intervention arms of the programme were successfully delivered to the majority of children participating in ‘Switch-Play’; that the programmes were delivered as intended; and that the programmes were favourably evaluated by participating children and their parents.

Physical activity, emotional stress, sleep disturbances, and daily fluctuations in chronic fatigue symptomatology

The current study explored the relationships between physical and emotional stress and the symptomatology of chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS). Fifty-four CFS patients were studied using a longitudinal design. A self-report format was used to collect daily measures of major physical (sleep disturbance and physical activity) and emotional (subjective emotional stress level) stressors, as well as measures of levels of fatigue and secondary symptoms. The variables accounted for a moderate variance at the individual and occasion levels. Sleep disturbance and emotional stress were found to be positively associated with levels of fatigue and symptomatology, whereas physical activity was found to have a negative relationship with fatigue only. The severity of fatigue and symptoms were found to fluctuate daily in relation with the variables, indicating the complex nature of the associations.