“He who plants a tree – Plants a hope.” Reforestation possibilities in Tingana, Peru

Tropical forests have decreased drastically especially in the Peruvian Amazon. In Peru deforestation is caused especially by migrant people; building of houses and infrastructure, clearing land for agricultural purposes and illegal logging and mining. Deforestation results in hindering ecosystem vitality, boosting climate change and decreasing livelihood possibilities. As a counterpoint to cutting down trees there is reforestation, which refers to re-establishment of forest cover. Deforestation and reforestation can be analysed in the light of Forest Transition theory. According to it, due to economic growth, the amount forest cover first diminishes but then starts to increase as the economy in general strengthens. Thus, the research framework is set to this theory. In this study the focus is on analysing socioeconomically sustainable reforestation possibilities in the community of Tingana, Peru. It is situated in a municipal conservation area around which deforestation has been heavy. Land cover change is analysed from LandsatTM satellite images covering a 15 year time period, 1995–2010, in the surroundings of the study area. Semi-structured interviews have been done with a sample size of 25 people and shed light on the perspectives on forests, reforestation and economical activities. The synthesis created from the two methods gives information about the possibilities to enforce reforestation in Tingana and the phase of forest transition in the area. The results show that forest cover has decreased around the surroundings of Tingana leaving the conservation area isolated from larger forest areas. Knowing that forest cover has also decreased inside the conservation area due to agricultural expansion it is certain that fragmentation harms biodiversity causing changes in local climate, which can have knock-on effects for farming and local livelihoods. Therefore reforestation is welcomed when it ensures both conservation and financial benefits and when carried out on locals’ terms. Regarding conservation and incomes the best option would be to plant native timber species together with fruit production species to create agroforestry systems. Economically the community should aim towards an economy that relies on ecotourism as it already practiced in the area. Reforestation could increase ecotourism, which then could in turn increase reforestation via revenues. Regarding forest transition it is likely that forest re-establishment will occur if reforestation along with ecotourism is implemented on long time scale.

Starch analysis as a method to discover subsistence strategies in prehistoric Finland and Estonia

Ancient starch analysis is a microbotanical method in which starch granules are extracted from archaeological residues and the botanical source is identified. The method is an important addition to established palaeoethnobotanical research, as it can reveal ancient microremains of starchy staples such as cereal grains and seeds. In addition, starch analysis can detect starch originating from underground storage organs, which are rarely discovered using other methods. Because starch is tolerant of acidic soils, unlike most organic matter, starch analysis can be successful in northern boreal regions. Starch analysis has potential in the study of cultivation, plant domestication, wild plant usage and tool function, as well as in locating activity areas at sites and discovering human impact on the environment. The aim of this study was to experiment with the starch analysis method in Finnish and Estonian archaeology by building a starch reference collection from cultivated and native plant species, by developing sampling, measuring and analysis protocols, by extracting starch residues from archaeological artefacts and soils, and by identifying their origin. The purpose of this experiment was to evaluate the suitability of the method for the study of subsistence strategies in prehistoric Finland and Estonia. A total of 64 archaeological samples were analysed from four Late Neolithic sites in Finland and Estonia, with radiocarbon dates ranging between 2904 calBC and 1770 calBC. The samples yielded starch granules, which were compared with the starch reference collection and descriptions in the literature. Cereal-type starch was identified from the Finnish Kiukainen culture site and from the Estonian Corded Ware site. The samples from the Finnish Corded Ware site yielded underground storage organ starch, which may be the first evidence of the use of rhizomes as food in Finland. No cereal-type starch was observed. Although the sample sets were limited, the experiment confirmed that starch granules have been preserved well in the archaeological material of Finland and Estonia, and that differences between subsistence patterns, as well as evidence of cultivation and wild plant gathering, can be discovered using starch analysis. By collecting large sample sets and addressing the three most important issues – preventing contamination, collecting adequate references and understanding taphonomic processes – starch analysis can substantially contribute to research on ancient subsistence in Finland and Estonia.