The Freudian unconscious in the context of the cognitive orientation

For decades psychoanalysis was the discipline studying the unconscious, and other branches of study lacked competence to take a stand on the issues concerning the unconscious. From 1980s onwards intense study of the unconscious has been taken place in the scope of cognitive orientation. Thus, nowadays it is talked about both pyschoanalytic and cognitive unconscious. The aim of this thesis is to integrate psychoanalytic and cognitive views. When the "Freudian" conception of the unconscious is considered, there are four entangled issues: 1) what is the unconscious like, 2) how does the unconsciuos give rise to psychic disorders 3) why and how certain contents are missing from consciousness (repression of contents), 4) the emergence of those contents (becoming conscious of the repressed). The conventional psychoanalytic answer to the first question - and "the cornerstone of psychoanalysis" - is "the unconscious is mental". The issues 2)-4) depend radically on the answer given to the 1): "psychoanalytic" conceptualizations on them rest on the "cornerstone". That ground was challended in study I: it was argued that it has never been clear what does it mean that the unconscious is mental. Thus, it was stated that in the current state of art psychoanalysis should drop out the ephitet "mental" before the term unconscious. That claim creates a pressure to reappraise the convential "psychoanalytic" answers to the other questions, and that reappraisal was the aim of studies II and III. In study II the question 2) is approached in terms of implicit knowledge. Study III focuses on mechanisms, which determine which contents appear in the scope of consciousness, and also cause missing of contents from there (the questions 3) and 4)). In the core of study III there are distinctions concerning the processess occuring in the levels of the brain, consciousness, self-consciousness, and narrative self-consciousness. Studies I-III set "psychoanalytic" topics in the frames of cognitive view. The picture emerging from those studies is not especially useful for a clinican (psychotherapist). Studies IV and V focused that issue. Study IV is a rather serious critique toward neuropsychoanalysis. In it it was claimed that repressive functions of conscious states are in the core of clinical psychoanalysis, and functions in general cannot be reduced to neurophysiological terminology. Thus, the limits of neuropsychoanalysis are more strict than it has been realized: crucial clinical issues remain outside its scope. In study V it was focused on the confusing state of things that although unconscious fantasies do not exist, the idea on them has been an important conceptual tool for clinicans. When put in a larger context, the aim of study V is similar to that of study IV: to determine the relation between psychotherapists' and neuroscientists' terminologies. Studies III, IV and V apply the philosopher Daniel Dennett's model on different levels of explanation.

Preventive orientation and caries management by Iranian dentists

Ehkäisypainotteisuus karieksen hoidossa: iranilaishammaslääkärien hoitovalinnat Karies aiheuttaa hampaiden kovan pinnan ja hammasluun syöpymistä, joka lopulta näkyy ”reikänä”. Iästä riippumatta kariesvaara vaanii kaikkia hampaiden omistajia, vauvasta vaariin, ja lähes kaikilla aikuisilla on suussaan merkkejä karieksesta. Karies etenee yleensä hitaasti ja antaa siten aikaa ehkäisevälle hoidolle. Tämä etsikkoaika jää usein käyttämättä, ja karieksen hoito painottuu reikien paikkaamiseen. Karies voitaisiin pitää kurissa sen ehkäisyyn kehitetyillä monipuolisilla keinoilla. Hammaslääkärit ovat avainasemassa, sillä he tekevät kauaskantoisia valintoja — hoidetaanko kariesta paikkaamalla vai valitaanko ehkäisevä hoito? Valintojen taustalla ovat hammaslääkärin tietotaso, asenteet ja omat terveystavat sekä potilaiden ja vastaanoton aiheuttamiksi koetut esteet. Tämä kyselytutkimus selvitti karieksen hoitovalintoja ja niiden taustoja Iranissa. Kysymyslomakkeet jaettiin kahdessa hammaslääkärien kongressissa Teheranissa (2004─2005) ja palautettiin nimettöminä. Kysely kartoitti hammaslääkärien tietoja karieksen ehkäisykeinoista ja asenteita ehkäisyä kohtaan sekä koettuja esteitä sen toteuttamisessa. Hoitovalintoja selvitettiin tarkasti kuvattujen esimerkkipotilaiden avulla. Kysely kartoitti myös hammaslääkärien omat terveystavat: suun omahoidon, tupakoinnin ja hammaslääkärissä käynnin. Aineisto käsitti 980 iältään keskimäärin 37-vuotiasta hammaslääkäriä, joista 64 % oli miehiä. Iranilaishammaslääkärien tiedot karieksen ehkäisystä olivat fluorihammastahnan merkitystä lukuun ottamatta hyvät ja heidän asenteensa ehkäisyä kohtaan valtaosin myönteiset. Tästä huolimatta 77 % heistä olisi valinnut suuren kariesvaaran potilaalle hammaskiilteessä olevan reiän hoidoksi paikkauksen. Ehkäisyhoidoksi tarjotuista 8:sta keinosta lähes kaikki hammaslääkärit valitsivat suuren kariesvaaran potilaalle hoidoksi harjausopetuksen ja säännölliset hammastarkastukset, noin 80 % valitsi hampaiden puhdistamisen vastaanotolla ja ravintoneuvonnan, 70 % ohjeet fluorihuuhteluista kotona ja 53 % vastaanotolla tehtävän fluorikäsittelyn. Potilaiden vastustavat mielipiteet arvioitiin suurimmaksi esteeksi ehkäisevän hoidon toteuttamiselle. Hammaslääkäreistä 59 % ilmoitti harjaavansa hampaansa kahdesti päivässä; 76 % ei tupakoinut ja 56 % kertoi aina ehdottavansa tupakoivalle potilaalle tupakoinnin lopettamista. Hammaslääkärien ehkäisypainotteisuus karieshoidossa oli naisilla vahvempi kuin miehillä. Tulosten perusteella voi päätellä, että Iranissa tulisi nykyistä selvemmin suosia ehkäisevää linjaa karieksen hoitovalintoja tehtäessä ja hammaslääkäreitä koulutettaessa. Potilastyössä koettujen ehkäisyhoidon esteiden syvällisempi ymmärtäminen edesauttaisi niiden poistamisessa.

Interactions between transgenic trees and mycorrhizal and pathogenic fungi

The development of biotechnology techniques in plant breeding and the new commercial applications have raised public and scientific concerns about the safety of genetically modified (GM) crops and trees. To find out the feasibility of these new technologies in the breeding of commercially important Finnish hardwood species and to estimate the ecological risks of the produced transgenic plants, the experiments of this study have been conducted as a part of a larger project focusing on the risk assessment of GM-trees. Transgenic Betula pendula and Populus trees were produced via Agrobacterium mediated transformation. Stilbene synthase (STS) gene from pine (Pinus sylvestris) and chitinase gene from sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) were transferred to (hybrid) aspen and birch, respectively, to improve disease resistance against fungal pathogens. To modify lignin biosynthesis, a 4-coumarate:coenzyme A ligase (4CL) gene fragment in antisense orientation was introduced into two birch clones. In in vitro test, one transgenic aspen line expressing pine STS gene showed increased resistance to decay fungus Phellinus tremulae. In the field, chitinase transgenic birch lines were more susceptible to leaf spot (Pyrenopeziza betulicola) than the non-transgenic control clone while the resistance against birch rust (Melampsoridium betulinum) was improved. No changes in the content or composition of lignin were detected in the 4CL antisense birch lines. In order to evaluate the ecological effects of the produced GM trees on non-target organisms, an in vitro mycorrhiza experiment with Paxillus involutus and a decomposition experiment in the field were performed. The expression of a transgenic chitinase did not disturb the establishment of mycorrhizal symbiosis between birch and P. involutus in vitro. 4CL antisense transformed birch lines showed retarded root growth but were able to form normal ectomycorrhizal associations with the mycorrhizal fungus in vitro. 4CL lines also showed normal litter decomposition. Unexpected growth reductions resulting from the gene transformation were observed in chitinase transgenic and 4CL antisense birch lines. These results indicate that genetic engineering can provide a tool in increasing disease resistance in Finnish tree species. More extensive data with several ectomycorrhizal species is needed to evaluate the consequences of transgene expression on beneficial plant-fungus symbioses. The potential pleiotropic effects of the transgene should also be taken into account when considering the safety of transgenic trees.

Remote sensing of leaf area index: enhanced retrieval from close-range and remotely sensed optical observations

A wide range of models used in agriculture, ecology, carbon cycling, climate and other related studies require information on the amount of leaf material present in a given environment to correctly represent radiation, heat, momentum, water, and various gas exchanges with the overlying atmosphere or the underlying soil. Leaf area index (LAI) thus often features as a critical land surface variable in parameterisations of global and regional climate models, e.g., radiation uptake, precipitation interception, energy conversion, gas exchange and momentum, as all areas are substantially determined by the vegetation surface. Optical wavelengths of remote sensing are the common electromagnetic regions used for LAI estimations and generally for vegetation studies. The main purpose of this dissertation was to enhance the determination of LAI using close-range remote sensing (hemispherical photography), airborne remote sensing (high resolution colour and colour infrared imagery), and satellite remote sensing (high resolution SPOT 5 HRG imagery) optical observations. The commonly used light extinction models are applied at all levels of optical observations. For the sake of comparative analysis, LAI was further determined using statistical relationships between spectral vegetation index (SVI) and ground based LAI. The study areas of this dissertation focus on two regions, one located in Taita Hills, South-East Kenya characterised by tropical cloud forest and exotic plantations, and the other in Gatineau Park, Southern Quebec, Canada dominated by temperate hardwood forest. The sampling procedure of sky map of gap fraction and size from hemispherical photographs was proven to be one of the most crucial steps in the accurate determination of LAI. LAI and clumping index estimates were significantly affected by the variation of the size of sky segments for given zenith angle ranges. On sloping ground, gap fraction and size distributions present strong upslope/downslope asymmetry of foliage elements, and thus the correction and the sensitivity analysis for both LAI and clumping index computations were demonstrated. Several SVIs can be used for LAI mapping using empirical regression analysis provided that the sensitivities of SVIs at varying ranges of LAI are large enough. Large scale LAI inversion algorithms were demonstrated and were proven to be a considerably efficient alternative approach for LAI mapping. LAI can be estimated nonparametrically from the information contained solely in the remotely sensed dataset given that the upper-end (saturated SVI) value is accurately determined. However, further study is still required to devise a methodology as well as instrumentation to retrieve on-ground green leaf area index . Subsequently, the large scale LAI inversion algorithms presented in this work can be precisely validated. Finally, based on literature review and this dissertation, potential future research prospects and directions were recommended.

Spatial ecology of a specialist insect herbivore : the leaf-mining moth Tischeria ekebladella on the pedunculate oak Quercus robur

Herbivorous insects comprise a major part of terrestrial biodiversity, and their interactions with their host plants and natural enemies are of vast ecological importance. A large body of research demonstrates that the ecology and evolution of these insects may be affected by trophic interactions, by abiotic influences, and by intraspecific processes, but so far research on these individual aspects has rarely been combined. This thesis uses the leaf-mining moth Tischeria ekebladella and the pedunculate oak (Quercus robur) as a case study to assess how spatial variation in trophic interactions and the physical distribution of host trees jointly affect the distribution, dynamics and evolution of a host-specific herbivore. With respect to habitat quality, Tischeria ekebladella experiences abundant variation at several spatial scales. Most of this variation occurs at small scales notably among leaves and shoots within individual trees. While hypothetically this could cause moths to evolve an ability to select leaves and shoots of high quality, I did not find any coupling between female preference and offspring performance. Based on my studies on temporal variation in resource quality I therefore propose that unpredictable temporal changes in the relative rankings of individual resource units may render it difficult for females to predict the fate of their developing offspring. With respect to intraspecific processes, my results suggest that limited moth dispersal in relation to the spatial distribution of oak trees plays a key role in determining the regional distribution of Tischeria ekebladella. The distribution of the moth is aggregated at the landscape level, where local leaf miner populations are less likely to be present where oaks are scarce. A modelling exercise based on empirical dispersal estimates revealed that the moth population on Wattkast an island in south-western Finland is spatially structured overall, but that the relative importance of local and regional processes on tree-specific moth dynamics varies drastically across the landscape. To conclude, my work in the oak-Tischeria ekebladella system demonstrates that the local abundance and regional distribution of a herbivore may be more strongly influenced by the spatial location of host trees than by their relative quality. Hence, it reveals the importance of considering spatial context in the study of herbivorous insects, and forms a bridge between the classical fields of plant-insect interactions and spatial ecology.

European aspen and hybrid aspen under changing environment : Leaf traits, growth and litter decomposition

Understanding the responses of species and ecosystems to human-induced global environmental change has become a high research priority. The main aim of this thesis was to investigate how certain environmental factors that relate to global change affect European aspen (Populus tremula), a keystone species in boreal forests, and hybrid aspen (P. tremula × P. tremuloides), cultivated in commercial plantations. The main points under consideration were the acclimatization potential of aspen through changes in leaf morphology, as well as effects on growth, leaf litter chemistry and decomposition. The thesis is based on two experiments, in which young aspen (< 1 year) were exposed either to an atmospheric pollutant [elevated ozone (O3)] or variable resource availability [water, nitrogen (N)]; and two field studies, in which mature trees (> 8 years) were growing in environments exposed to multiple environmental stress factors (roadside and urban environments). The field studies included litter decomposition experiments. The results show that young aspen, especially the native European aspen, was sensitive to O3 in terms of visible leaf injuries. Elevated O3 resulted in reduced biomass allocation to roots and accelerated leaf senescence, suggesting negative effects on growth in the long term. Water and N availability modified the frost hardening of young aspen: High N supply, especially when combined with drought, postponed the development of frost hardiness, which in turn may predispose trees to early autumn frosts. This effect was more pronounced in European aspen. The field studies showed that mature aspen acclimatized to roadside and urban environments by producing more xeromorphic leaves. Leaf morphology was also observed to vary in response to interannual climatic variation, which further indicates the ability of aspen for phenotypic plasticity. Intraspecific variation was found in several of the traits measured, although intraspecific differences in response to the abiotic factors examined were generally small throughout the studies. However, some differences between clones were found in sensitivity to O3 and the roadside environment. Aspen leaf litter decomposition was retarded in the roadside environment, but only initially. By contrast, decomposition was found to be faster in the urban than the rural environment throughout the study. The higher quality of urban litter (higher in N, lower in lignin and phenolics), as well as higher temperature, N deposition and humus pH at the urban site were factors likely to promote decay. The phenotypic plasticity combined with intraspecific variation found in the studies imply that aspen has potential for withstanding environmental changes, although some global change factors, such as rising O3 levels, may adversely affect its performance. The results also suggest that the multiple environmental changes taking place in urban areas which correspond closely with the main drivers of global change can modify ecosystem functioning by promoting litter decomposition, mediated partly by alterations in leaf litter quality.

Strategic Sales Process Adaptation: Relationship Orientation of the Sales Process in a Business-to-Business Context

Although previous research has recognised adaptation as a central aspect in relationships, the adaptation of the sales process to the buying process has not been studied. Furthermore, the linking of relationship orientation as mindset with adaptation as a strategy and forming the means has not been elaborated upon in previous research. Adaptation in the context of relationships has mostly been studied in relationship marketing. In sales and sales management research, adaptation has been studied with reference to personal selling. This study focuses on adaptation of the sales process to strategically match it to the buyer’s mindset and buying process. The purpose of this study is to develop a framework for strategic adaptation of the seller’s sales process to match the buyer’s buying process in a business-to-business context to make sales processes more relationship oriented. In order to arrive at a holistic view of adaptation of the sales process during relationship initiation, both the seller and buyer are included in an extensive case analysed in the study. However, the selected perspective is primarily that of the seller, and the level focused on is that of the sales process. The epistemological perspective adopted is constructivism. The study is a qualitative one applying a retrospective case study, where the main sources of information are in-depth semi-structured interviews with key informants representing the counterparts at the seller and the buyer in the software development and telecommunications industries. The main theoretical contributions of this research involve targeting a new area in the crossroads of relationship marketing, sales and sales management, and buying and purchasing by studying adaptation in a business-to-business context from a new perspective. Primarily, this study contributes to research in sales and sales management with reference to relationship orientation and strategic sales process adaptation. This research fills three research gaps. Firstly, linking the relationship orientation mindset with adaptation as strategy. Secondly, extending adaptation in sales from adaptation in selling to strategic adaptation of the sales process. Thirdly, extending adaptation to include facilitation of adaptation. The approach applied in the study, systematic combining, is characterised by continuously moving back and forth between theory and empirical data. The framework that emerges, in which linking mindset with strategy with mindset and means forms a central aspect, includes three layers: purchasing portfolio, seller-buyer relationship orientation, and strategic sales process adaptation. Linking the three layers enables an analysis of where sales process adaptation can make a contribution. Furthermore, implications for managerial use are demonstrated, for example how sellers can avoid the ‘trap’ of ad-hoc adaptation. This includes involving the company, embracing the buyer’s purchasing portfolio, understanding the current position that the seller has in this portfolio, and possibly educating the buyer about advantages of adopting a relationship-oriented approach.